distance from the earth. But the error, whatever it is, is propagated from the solar system into the deepest spaces which the telescope has ever traversed. The sun's distance is the measuring rod with which the astronomer metes out the distances of the fixed stars and dimensions of the stellar orbits. An error of three per cent. in the sun's distance entails an error of three per cent. in all these other distances and dimensions. Trifling as three per cent. may seem, the correction runs up to 600,000 millions of miles in the distance of the nearest fixed stars." Mr. Hind, also, in the paper already quoted from, remarks of the proposed increase of the solar parallax that by it the earth is brought about 4,000,000 miles nearer the sun, and its annual path shortened by about 25,000,000 miles, its orbital motion being correspondingly diminished. So, he adds, with the single exception of the moon, both the distances and dimensions of all the other bodies of the solar system, as expressed in miles, must be diminished in proportion. These, however, are matters of curiosity. And he states that as we may suppose, because calculations respecting the heavenly bodies mainly involve relative, and not absolute values, the proposed change in the parallax of the sun will produce but little effect in the most delicate astronomical investigations.

NOTE. Since the above abstract was prepared, there has come to our notice a summary of an article contributed by M. Foucault to the "Comptes Rendus," November 24th, 1862, on the "Experimental Determination of the Velocity of Light, and a Description of the Apparatus." In this, that author speaks of having found a source of error in the micrometer (an instrument seldom so accurate as is commonly thought); and having obviated this error by means of another method of determining the deviation of the image observed in the revolving mirror, he considered himself at the time of writing able to give with confidence the number appearing to express the velocity of light in space; namely, 298,000 kilometres 190,249.16 miles, in a second of mean time. This result, if accepted, would imply a less magnitude in the errors of distance, &c., above considered. Motion of the Sun in Space.-From a consideration of the proper motions of the stars in space, Sir Wm. Herschel, Argelander, Galloway, and others were led to infer that the sun is moving in the direction of the constellation Hercules; and Struve attempted to calculate its annual motion toward that point. From a more extensive series of observations made upon 1,167 stars, Prof. Airy is unable to find a confirmation of this conclusion; and by like observations and calculations Mr. Dunkin arrives at the same result. Latterly, it had been proposed to investigate this problem by finding whether or not the direction of motion of comets, before coming into the solar influence, was different from the motion concluded to belong to the sun. But Mr. Carrington and

Prof. Fearnley now declare their opinion that even this method could not be successfully ap plied; and they advise that the observation and determination of the proper motions of the stars, with a view to this question, be still persevered in.

Some Points relating to the Constitution of the Sun.-Sir Wm. Armstrong, in the opening address before the British Association for the advancement of science, at the meeting for 1863 (Aug. 26th), made upon this subject, among others, the following remarks:

"Of all the results which science has produced within the last few years, none have been more unexpected than those by which we are enabled to test the materials of which the sun is made, and prove their identity, in part at least, with those of our planet." The same researches have also corroborated previous conjectures as to the luminous envel ope of the sun.

Among the most remarkable discoveries in connection with the sun must be ranked that of Mr. Nasmyth, to the effect that the bright surface of this body presents the appearance of an aggregation of apparently solid forms, shaped like willow leaves, or some well known forms of Diatomacer, and interlacing one another in all possible directions. These mysterious objects appear in some way connected with the heat, and [if we can understand what, in a physical sense, this is] the vivifying power of the sun. They have been seen by other observers, and computed to be each not less than 1,000 miles in length by about 100 in breadth. The enormous chasms in the sun's photosphere, to which we apply the diminutive appellation of" spots," exhibit the extremities of these leaflike bodies pointing inward and fringing the sides of the cavern far down into the abyss. Sometimes they form a rope or bridge across the chasm, and appear to adhere to one another by lateral attraction.

A most remarkable phenomenon was seen by independent observers at two different places on the first of September, 1859. A sudden outburst of light far exceeding the brightness of the sun's surface, was seen to take place, and then to sweep like a drifting cloud over a portion of the solar face. This was attended with magnetic disturbances of unusual intensity, and with the exhibition of auroras of extraordinary brilliancy. The instant of the effusion of the light was recorded by an abrupt and marked deflection in the selfregistering instruments at Kew. Probably, in fact, but a part of the phenomenon was seen, as the magnetic storm attending it commenced before and continued after the event. Perhaps this phenomenon should be regarded as having a connection with the renovation of the sun's heat. Thus, it may be explained on the supposition of the plunging of cosmical matter into the sun with the prodigious velocity which gravitation would impart to it, the arrested motion giving place to its equivalent of heat.

extending ether, in which, aside from the steady motions excited in it by the (light-giving) solar action, the gravitative action of the revolving mass of the sun produces a disturbing effect-such effect, he finds by mathematical analysis, being adequate to cause in the disturbed space light-undulations. The related phenomenon, of a luminous arch several degrees in width across the whole sky, and spoken of by Prof. Brorsen as a "ring-form of the zodiacal light," observed by Mr. Jones, near Quito, in 1856, by Brorsen, at Senftenberg, Prussia, 1854-'8, and previously by Humboldt, off the coast of Mexico, Prof. Challis regards as due to "gravity-undulations" originated in like manner by the axial revolution of the earth.

Nebula.-An account was given in this article, in the preceding volume, of the singular phenomena of variation and disappearance of certain nebule, with allusions also to the connection of these changes with irregular appearance or variability of certain stars situated in or close to the field of nebula. In the "American Journal of Science," for Jan. 1863, appears a translation of Prof. A. Gautier's "Recent Researches relating to the Nebula" (from the "Bibliothèque Universelle," Sept. 1862), and in which is to be found a very complete statement of the facts accumulated in regard to these interesting bodies, up to the date of appearance of the original article.

Besides a variation in brilliancy, certain nebule have been observed to undergo changes of form or appearance. Such is now the view taken of the change in the nebula or star-cluster, 80 of Messier, in Scorpio, in 1860. This nebula, having on May 9th of that year its ordinary appearance, by the 28th of the same month had assumed the aspect of a single star of 7-8th magnitude; and by the 10th of June following the stellar appearance had nearly disappeared, though the nebula was then brighter than usual, with a well-marked central condensation.

northern declination, in which, as observed in 1785; 1827, and 1862, sensible changes appear to have taken place, indicating a movement of revolution of one part round another. Between the two components, which are only 28" apart, a very small star is seen exactly where Lassell observed it ten years before. M. d'Arrest will hereafter cite other instances of change in the relative positions of double nebule; though he does not yet infer that any of them have periods of revolution so short as those of some of the double stars. Finally, he describes a very small number of cases in which, by repeated comparison after intervals of a nebula with some small star near it, he has been able to show slight differences of distance or position, which might indicate a proper motion of one or the other of these bodies.

The La Lande Prize.-The La Lande (astronomical) prize, value 500 francs, was awarded by the French Academy of Sciences, in Jannary, 1863, to Mr. Alvan Clark, of Cambridge port, Mass., for his discovery of the companion of Sirius [mentioned in the preceding volume.

The great 18 inch object-glass with which Mr. Clark made this remarkable observation. has been purchased by the Astronomical Asso ciation of Chicago, for the sum of $11,187: about an equal sum being considered requisite to pay for mounting it properly.

AUSTRIA. (For notice of the Imperial House, detailed statistics of the population, the different nationalities, religious denominations, aud principal cities, sce ANNUAL CYCLOPEDIA for 1862.)

The population of Austria at the end of 1861, was estimated at 37,000,000 souls. The following portions of Austria form part of the Ger man Confederacy:

Countries.

Archduchy of Austria Duchy of Salzburg.. of Styria.

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of Carinthia.

66

of Carniola..

Triest and its territory, the dis-j trict of Goritz, and part of the district of Istria.. County of Tyrol and Vorarlberg... Kingdom of Bohemia.. Margraviate of Moravia.. Duchy of Silesia..

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Sir John Herschel has remarked that the proportion, to the whole number, of the nebulæ which are-if we may so express it-multiple, is greater than the proportion, to the whole number, of the multiple stars. Assuming 5' as the greatest distance apart of the members of double nebulæ, M. d'Arrest has estimated that out of the whole number of about 3,000 nebulæ in that part of the heavens visible to us, some two or three hundred may be regarded as multiple. He has found a triple nebula, 109° 12′ of right ascension and 29° 45' of

Auschwitz and Zator.

The budget of the financial department, estimated for the year beginning on Nov. 1st, 1863, and ending on Dec. 31st, 1864, which was presented to the Council of the Empire, on July 17th, 1863, gave the following results:

signs. These doubts have been the greatest obstacle to the efforts of our Government tending to the deliverance of the country. The removal of that obstacle becomes an imperious necessity before the new turn of European events-a turn offering a prospect full of promise to all the peoples who groan under a foreign yoke. We must give a sign of life in order that our natural allies may be convinced that against the common enemy they may surely count upon the arms of the Magyars. We must hold ourselves in readiness, in order that the ties of the terrified Austrian may not entangle our nation in the snare. We must prepare to be in a state to seize energetically the favorable opportunity. For these purposes the Governor, Louis Kossuth, abolishing every previous order, and having judged it necessary to decree the forma tion of a new general committee, makes known, by the present document, to the nation, that in consequence of that order the General Committee of Independence is constituted; that it has for its end the realization of the declaration of independence of 1849; and that, full of resolution and ready for all sacrifices, it has taken in hand the direction of affairs, according to the instructions received, or to be received, from the chosen governor of our country. The committee expects, from the patriotic sentiments of the nation, that the orders emanating from it will be promptly executed, that its instructions will be followed, and that its measures will be speedily accomplished. At the same time it calls upon the enemies, open and concealed, of the flag of 1849, to abstain from any plot or intrigue if they would not incur the penalty inflicted upon traitors. At all events, the General Committee of Independence declares that it will know how, and that it is determined, to secure obedience to its orders, and the accomplishment of the measures which it must take. Long live the nation and good hope. Let every honest patriot prepare himself for action. Our motto is-1849 and victory.

Done at BUDE PESTH, the 24th Dec., 1863.

It was asserted that the National Committee of Hungary would act on the same footing as the secret Polish Government, that its manifesto had been placarded in all the towns of Hungary and Transylvania, and that it had produced a great sensation.

BAIRD, ROBERT, D.D., an American Presbyterian clergyman and author, born in Fayette county, Pa., October 6th, 1798, died at Yonkers, N. Y., March 15th, 1863. He received his collegiate education at Washington and Jefferson Colleges Pa., graduating at the latter in 1818. After leaving college he taught for a year at Bellefort, where he commenced, also, his career as a newspaper writer, in the village newspaper. In 1819 he entered the Theological Seminary at Princeton, N. J., and pursued the usual course of theological study for three years, acting as tutor in the New Jersey College during his last year in the seminary. In 1822 he was licensed, and the same year took charge of an academy in Princeton, over which he presided for the next five years with great success, preaching occasionally in the neighboring pulpits. In 1827 he determined to devote himself more exclusively to professional labors, and proposed to the American Bible Society a plan for supplying every

In the diplomatic complications arising out of the Polish difficulties, Austria took an active part. In common with France and England, she addressed several notes to Russia, urging upon the latter Power the expediency of adopting measures calculated to restore peace, but showed herself, however, averse to going to war with Russia. (See POLAND.) She observed a strict neutrality in the war between Russia and Poland. Some Galician members in the Austrian Council complained of the rigorous measures adopted by the Government against the sympathizers with the insurrection, but the Council approved the steps which had been taken in this respect.

The Emperor of Austria, in August, proposed to the Governments forming the German Confederacy, a highly important plan for the refor mation of the federal constitution of Germany. A Congress of Princes, and representatives of the four free cities assembled at Frankfort, on August 17th, and by a considerable majority adopted the Austrian plan; but as Prussia was not represented in this Congress, and did not consent to the resolutions, no result was obtained up to the end of the year 1863. (See GERMANY.)

In the Schleswig-Holstein question which, toward the end of the year, began to disturb the peace of Europe, and in particular that of Germany, Austria, in union with Prussia, was in favor recognizing King Christian IX. of Denmark, as Duke of Schleswig and Holstein, and to compel Denmark to repeal the constitution by which Schleswig was to be incorporated with Denmark Proper. This view was, however, not shared by the Frankfort Diet, nor by any considerable portion of the German people, and the Austrian Government soon found itself in opposition to both.

destitute family in New Jersey with a Bible, which was adopted and carried into execution through his exertions. He also accepted an appointment as agent of the Missionary Society of New Jersey, and labored for two years among the feeble and destitute churches of his denomination in that State. In 1829 he accepted an appointment as agent of the American Sunday-school Union. For nearly six years he travelled extensively in its behalf, throughout the United States, holding meetings in most of the prominent cities and towns, .and enlisting the services of able speakers, statesmen, and divines, to address the audiences he had collected. By these labors he raised the annual revenues of the Union from $5,000 to $28,000. In 1835 he visited Europe, and remained there, with the exception of two brief visits home, for eight years, devoting himself to the promotion of Protestant Christianity in Southern Europe, and subsequently to the advocacy of the Temperance Reform in