the therapeutic properties of the waters. The concentration will secure great economy in transportation; and the ice meanwhile obtained has of course its value. Messrs. Tichon and Melsens, of Aix les Bains, Savoy, have recently put in a reclamation on the score of this process, claiming to have applied it since 1856 for the improvement of the taste of disagreeable sulphurous waters, and also to concentrate their mineral ingredients. The former asserts that the method will not suit all mineral waters, since it alters organic matters if these are held in solution in them.

Manufacture of Ice.-The objects to be secured in the processes just treated of, are much facilitated by the new method of M. Carré for the manufacture of ice, and of course, for the freezing of waters for any required purposes. This method, which attracted much attention in the Exhibition of 1862, and of which a full description is to be found in L'Année Scientifique et Industrielle, by Figuier (1863), is one which M. Carré has based essentially upon an apparatus of American invention, that of Prof. A. C. Twining. The latter had produced ice in a brief time by the cold consequent on volatilization of sulphuric ether; but a difficulty existed in the way of maintaining the requisite vacuum: M. Carré now substitutes ammonia, previously liquefied by condensation; the frigorific effect being due to the large amount of heat which becomes latent in this material when allowed again to assume the gaseous form. The new apparatus, which can be worked either intermittently or constantly, is being introduced into many branches of industry. Besides its application for purifying water, and for concentrating mineral waters, as above referred to, it is also employed by brewers for freezing the wort of beer destined to undergo fermentation; by restaurant keepers for preparing ices and sherbets; and by vine growers to concentrate wines.

Alcohol, Manufacture of, from Olefiant Gas. -See this subject under the preceding division of ORGANIC COMPOUNDS.

A New Safety Paper.-Mention is made in "Macniven and Cameron's Paper-trade Review," of a new safety paper, designed to prevent forgery or alteration of shares, bank-notes, checks, bills, or any paper demanding such security. The sheet of this paper is formed of several layers of pulp superposed, and which can be of different colors or nature, according to requirement. It is only necessary that the middle layer of the paper be colored of a delible or destructible color, when, if acids or other chemicals are employed to obliterate the writing or print on its surface, they will also destroy this color; and the hue wanting at such spot cannot be restored save by means that will destroy the whiteness of the surface of the paper. Thus this plan is likely to serve as an excellent check to the fraudulent alteration of documents.

Protection of Skins and Furs from Vermin. -Dry skins, as those of stuffed birds and ani

mals, as well as furs, &c., are known to be subject to the attack of insects, by which they may soon be destroyed. To prevent such injury, P. W. Payras, of Paris, has taken out a patent for treating such articles with a mixed solution of the sulphate and the chloride of zinc, of a strength corresponding to 15° Beaumé, with the addition of ten grains of arsenic to each quart of the liquid. The preparation having been applied with a brush or sponge to the fleshy side of the skin, the latter is then hung up and dried. Where greater expedition is desired, the whole skin may be dipped in the solution, and then dried. The liquid should be kept in a glass or porcelain vessel. In mcderately cold climates, the addition of arsenic may be dispensed with.

Gold and Rubber Plates for Artificial Teeth. -Mr. M. Cartwright, of London, has patented plates for artificial teeth, composed of gold and india-rubber intimately blended. The rubber having been first dissolved in benzine, leaf gold is then ground with it until an intimate mixture, and which is plastic, is formed. This compound is further softened by heating, until it can be worked into the model of the plate required; afterward it is vulcanized by heat in a suitable oven.

CHILI, a republic in South America. The population amounted on December 31st, 1861, to 1,648,804 inhabitants, of whom $22,727 were men, and 826,167 women. The annual increase is about 20,000. In 1861, 10,604 marriages were celebrated, being at the rate of one for every 153 inhabitants. The Chilian army numbered 2,028 men, and the national guard 26,839. The custom house receipts of Valpar aiso, in December, 1862, presented an excess of 30,000 piasters over those of December, 1861, and the general receipts for 1862 an excess of 240,000 piasters over the receipts of 1861. The budget of expenditures for 1863 was fixed at 6,529,000 piasters.

The political history of Chili presents no events of marked importance. In the Presi dent's message on the opening of Congress, in June, reforms were as usual noticed and great promises made.

The Chilian Government claimed the ownership of the guano lately discovered on the coast in Mejillones, in conformity with a law of 1842, which declared all discoveries to be "public property," but subsequently stated its willingness to grant licenses to load vessels as formerly, when applied for according to custom house regulations, and thus in a great measure satisfied the public.

At the beginning of the year, Chili had a serious diplomatic difficulty with England. The British representative claimed £50,000 for damages for the loss of an arm sustained by a young man, Whitehead, who had most impru dently and unjustifiably exposed himself by his interference with a sentry in the streets during the late revolution. The enforcement of this claim by order of the British Government, ex

cited the greatest indignation throughout the country, not only among the natives but also among the British residents. A meeting of about four hundred of the most influential British merchants was held in Valparaiso, to express their feelings with regard to the claim, and they were unanimous in condemning it as most unjust. The English Government, at length, consented to compromise the matter. On the 8th of December, 1862, Santiago, the capital of Chili, was the scene of a terrible calamity. The church of the Jesuits, while crowded in the evening to overflowing by more than three thousand persons, caught fire. The camphene in a transparency on the high altar set on fire its frame-work, and wrapped in flame a kind of tabernacle wholly composed of canvas, pasteboard, and wood. As no less than twenty thousand lights in long festoons of colored globes hung in the church, with gauze and drapery of every description, the whole interior was in a few minutes an inextinguishable bonfire, and a rain of liquid blue fire poured down upon the crowded masses below. The church had only one door of easy access, which, opening inside, was soon blocked up, and made escape impossible. In less than a quarter of an hour, about two thousand human beings had perished, including many children, but very few men. Feats of the most prodigious valor and thrilling heroism were performed by many individuals on the spot. Mr. Nelson, the American ambassador, in particular, distinguished himself. He was instrumental in saving the lives of fifty young ladies, and never deserted his post at the threshold of the doors until the roof had fallen in, when a complete shower of sparks and cinders seemed to envelop him. He was carried from the spot, with his clothes smouldering, and his hair singed to the roots.

On December 11th, he addressed a letter to the Secretary of Foreign Affairs of the republic, expressing the profound regret caused in his mind, and in that of his fellow citizens residing in Chili, for the terrible misfortune, and assuring the Chilian Government that the Government and people of the United States would feel the deepest sorrow upon receiving the news of this catastrophe. To this letter Señor Toornal, the Secretary of Foreign Affairs of Chili, replied, on December 12th, that he was specially charged by the President of the republic to assure the representative and the citizens of the United States who had taken part in the public mourning, that the noble conduct manifested by them upon this sad occasion would ever be gratefully remembered by the Chilian people and Government. To allay the popular excitement, the Government issued an order that the building in which the disaster occurred should be razed to the ground. The Legislature also passed an act providing that henceforth there should be no illuminations of churches and splendid night services, and that proper measures should be taken in all the

churches to secure a sufficient number of doors. Another result of the calamity was the organization of a fire brigade. On the 31st of December, a similar calamity had nearly befallen the worshippers in another church of Santiago, but fortunately the fire was extinguished.

In point of material prosperity, Chili is making great progress. The railway of Coquimbo, and the line from Santiago to Valparaiso, are finished, and it was intended to construct a telegraphic line from Valparaiso to Panama.

CHINA. An empire in Eastern Asia. Emperor: Ki-Tsiang (before his accession to the throne, Tsai-Sung), born in 1855, succeeded his father Hiengfung in August 22d, 1861. Prime Minister, Yih soo, Prince of Kung. Population, in 1849, estimated at 415 millions. Area, estimated by McCulloch at 76,815 geographical square miles, by Malte Brun at 69,840, by Barrow at 60,072.

The treaty of Nankin, concluded in 1842, opened to foreign commerce the ports of Canton, Amoy, Fu-tcheu, Ningpo and Shanghai. The treaty of Tien-tsin opened also the following ports: Kiung-tcheu on the island of Hainan, Taiwan upon the island of Formosa, Swatan on the coast of the province of Kiangtung, Tchi-fou on the northern coast of the province of Shan-tung, Niutchiang in the gulf of Leaotong, and the ports of Chinkiang, Kiukiang and Hangchow on the Yang-tse-kiang. The treaty of Pekin, of Oct. 24th and 26th, opened the port of Tien-tsin.

Since the middle of the year 1862 the Imperial Government, supported by England and France, has been constantly gaining upon the powerful Taeping rebellion. A number of English and French officers have been in the employment of the Chinese Government and formed different corps of native troops, which learned from them the tactics of the European troops. Several of the French officers lost their lives in engagements with the Taepings. Thus Admiral Protet was killed in an attack upon the city of Kiu-ting, which he undertook to take from the insurgents. Two other officers, Lebreton and Tardif de Moidry, captains of artillery, were likewise killed. The latter was succeeded by Gen. d'Argraibelle, who, in March, 1863, compelled the insurgents to evacuate the towns of Shaouh-sing (90 miles from Ningpo) and Seaousan (20 miles from the former place), and to fall back upon Hangchow. In Oct. 1863, the Franco-Chinese contingent captured Foyang, which was accomplished with 900 men and four guns.

The American General Ward, who had greatly distinguished himself in the service of the Chinese Government, was mortally wounded on September 20th, 1862, in an engagement with the Taepings near Ningpo, and died on the following day. He was succeeded in the command of the disciplined Chinese by Gen. Burgevine, who, however, got very soon into difficulties with the Chinese. On Jan. 4th, 1863, Gen. Burgevine marched into the settlement of

Shanghai from Soong-keong with his body guard, and entered the premises of Ta-kee, a mandarin of wealth, who acted as paymaster to the force. The object of this visit was to obtain money for the payment of his men, which was in heavy arrear. It had been repeatedly promised and as repeatedly withheld, and the consequence was that the troops, being entirely dependent on their pay for the means of subsistence, became insubordinate. To prevent open mutiny, Gen. Burgevine appears to have given his personal promise that they should receive at least a portion of their dues at once, and hence his march to Shanghai. A violent altercation ensued between him and Ta-kee, which ended in Gen. Burgevine giving the Chinaman some violent blows, and seizing $40,000, which he carried off and distributed among the starving soldiers. The Footai on this issued a proclamation denouncing Burgevine as guilty of treason, removing him from his command, and finishing by offering a reward for his head. Gen. Burgevine retired on board a British vessel, and Captain Holland, an Englishman, was in his place appointed to the temporary command of the Chinese. Mr. Burlingame, U. S. minister at Pekin, while disclaiming any right to have General Burgevine restored, or to interfere in the civil war, defended him against the unjust charges brought against him, and at length sent to the Chinese Government a kind of ultimatum demanding that the charges against Burgevine, having been admitted by the Chinese Government to be unjust, should be withdrawn. The Chinese Government complied with this request on the same day.

In July, 1863, Gen. Burgevine with 500 followers joined the insurgents, and the military mandarin at Shanghai offered a reward of £1,000 for the person of Burgevine "dead or alive." Against this offer, Mr. Seward, the United States consul, protested, and the other European consuls signed the protest. Gen. Burgevine became, however, soon disgusted with the insurgents, and left them.

The Anglo-Chinese contingent, under Major Gordon, was particularly successful against the Taepings. In March, Fooshan yielded to an attack, and the siege of Chiang-zu had to be raised by the rebels. Taitsan was recaptured in April, after some severe fighting, and after 500 men who had been sent to receive the surrender of the town from the rebel authorities had been treacherously murdered. On Oct. 12th Major Gordon captured Patolkon and Leookadis; on Oct. 24th, Prelung-vor (Wu-lungyow). A correspondent of the Paris "Moniteur," dated Shanghai, Nov. 2d, stated that Ly-ChungWong, the commander-in-chief of the rebel troops, after a brilliant campaign of three years, undertaken to relieve Kiang-si, the Hou-nan, and the Hou-pe, had returned precipitately to Nankin, which was attacked by the Imperialists and their allies. He had increased the garrison of the town to 30,000 men, and sup

plied it with provisions and ammunition for three years. He added to the guns on the 28 advanced works which form the exterior defences of the place, and he established an intrenched camp at Mo-ling, of which he gave the command to Heon-Tien-Hia, his adopted son, Chung-Wong had learned that the greater number of the towns which he captured during the campaign had been retaken by the allies; that, moreover, the Franco-Chinese contingent was laying siege to Hangchow, and that the Anglo-Chinese forces were attacking Soochow. Should these two places fall, the strategic line which the rebel general had formed round Nankin, would be destroyed, and in that case the Imperialists and the allies would unite their forces round the capital, which must be defended to the last extremity. Such were the last orders given by the rebel commander-in-chief.

On December 5th, the important city of Soochow capitulated to Major Gordon. From the account which Major Gordon published of the capitulation, it appears that the Chung Wong, who may be called the Taeping commander-in-chief, held a council of war at Soochow, at which all the Taeping chiefs (or Wongs) were present. He suggested that, as it was useless to fight against the English, both Soochow and Nankin should be evacuated, and that they should retire to the fastnesses of Kwangsi. This all agreed to, except the MoWong, who had charge of the defence of Soochow, and who was determined to defend the city to the death. The Chung-Wong then withdrew with all his men, and the other Wongs, excepting the Mo-Wong, made overtures of surrender, promising to deliver the Mo-Wong a prisoner. At a council of war, however, they came to a different conclusion, and slew the Mo-Wong in his presidential seat. They then made terms which were distinctly understood, and agreed to by the Footai, Gen. Ching, and Major Gordon. These terms embraced a full pardon for the Taeping chiefs and their followers. The city being entered under this capitula tion, the Footai decapitated all the Wongs, and gave the city over to plunder, which, to a certain extent, was followed by indiscriminate massacre, Major Gordon exerted himself most efficiently to stop the carnage, to warn the Taepings at a distance of the bad faith in store for them, and to give shelter to all the refugees who were in the neighborhood. On finding himself in an anomalous position, Major Gordon sent a communication to Gen. Brown, the commander-inchief of the British forces in China, who was on the point of leaving Shanghai for Hongkong. The General immediately proceeded to Soochow, and had an interview with both Major Gordon and the Footai. He then returned to Shanghai, and called a meeting of all the treaty consuls. The result was simply this: that Major Gordon should remain in charge of lis disciplined force, and act on the defensive only, but quite independent of the Footai, until a

reply should come from Pekin as to the perfidy practised by the Footai. The reason why Major Gordon retained the command is, that if he resigned a Frenchman would be appointed in his place.

In December, a great sensation was produced in Europe, and particularly in England, by the report that Prince Kung, the Chinese Minister of Foreign Affairs had refused to ratify an agreement made by Mr. Lay, inspector-general of the Chinese customs at Shanghai, with Capt. Osborn for the purchase of a fleet, and that Mr. Lay had been dismissed from the Chinese service. Mr. Lay had been authorized by Prince Kung to purchase some vessels, equip them, engage officers and seamen for them, and retain money out of the customs for his pay. He was, indeed, to make what arrangements might, in his judgment, seem desirable, with a view to successfully carrying out of the objeet in view. Mr. Lay accordingly set out for London, bought the ships, and put Capt. Sherard Osborn in the command of them. Messrs. Lay and Osborn entered into an agreement, and settled the terms upon which the AngloChinese contingent should be managed and paid. Some of the clauses of this document were as follows:

1. Osborn agrees to take the command of the European Chinese navy for a period of four years, and stipulates that there shall be no other European naval commander-in-chief.

2. Osborn, as commander-in-chief, is to have entire control over all vessels of European construction, as well as native vessels manned with Europeans that may be in the employ of the Emperor of China, or under his authority, of the native guilds.

4. Osborn undertakes to act upon all orders of the Emperor which may be conveyed direct to Lay, and Osborn engages not to attend to any orders conveyed through any other channel.

5. Lay, upon his part, engages to refuse to be the medium of any orders of the reasonableness of which he is not satisfied.

Even the color and device of the flag under which the fleet should sail were prepared, and the two Englishmen were perfectly agreed as to the manner in which the whole affair should be managed. When the fleet reached Shanghai, Capt. Osborn was greatly surprised to receive instructions, not from Mr. Lay, whose orders alone he had bound himself to regard, but from Prince Kung, who addressed him as "Osborn, the assistant commander-in-chief of the Chinese navy." Mr. Lay, at the same time, informed him, that he was unable to obtain the emperor's ratification to the terms of agreement, which they had settled in London, and, indeed, that the Chinese authorities had not even taken the trouble to acknowledge its receipt. Capt. Osborn subsequently refused to serve under Prince Kung. "I did not come here," he writes, "or my followers either, to custom ourselves to the treatment usual with Chinese sailors or soldiers, or to assist in a retrogressive policy in the treatment of European employés, or Europeans in general. The employment of ships of war and steam

ers of European construction is an innovation; that of European officers and gentlemen still more so. I and my force are part and parcel of a new order of things, indicating 'progress in China.' I will be no party to her lapsing back into her ancient system, and treating Europeans as if they were Chinamen. By submitting to such instructions and violation of my original agreement, I should at once deprive myself of the power to assist in carrying out in China the policy of Western civilization."

The European ministers in Pekin protested against allowing Prince Kung to have the ships on his own terms, and Prince Kung then requested Mr. Bruce to sell the ships for him. Mr. Bruce having requested Capt. Osborn to undertake their disposal, a part of the squadron were to sail for England, and Capt. Osborn, with the Keangsoo, Quantung, and Amoy, sailed for Bombay.

The "Overland Trade Report," an English paper, published in Hongkong, gives the follawing interesting details of this swindle:

The downfall of the Anglo-Chinese fleet scheme is likely to prove injurious and detrimental to British interests. It would seem that the British minister was palpably implicated in the fraudulent transaction, for it deserves no other name. The Chinese Government remitted Mr. Lay, when he was in England on sick leave, the sum of 650,000 taels (about £200,000) to buy steamers. He procured a flotilla which cost far more than the means placed at his disposal, which fleet he hypothecated to the British Government not only for the deficiency, but under certain conditions which were especially adapted for the exclusive advantage of British interests. It seems that the French and Russian ministers naturally became alarmed at the influence which the scheme, if carried out, was calculated to give the British minister, and consequently they stated their objections to Prince Kung, who, being pressed by the anti-foreign party in the state, became alarmed, and took occasion to break off friendly relations with Sir F. Bruce. The French minister supplanted him in the Prince's counsels, and his Highness has declined ish minister, during which period Mr. Lay has acted as for some months all personal interviews with the Brithis Excellency's Chinese secretary. This state of things was undoubtedly brought about by the underhand dealings of the British minister in relation to the fleet, and has ripened into an ill-feeling, if not into of his Excellency supporting Mr. Lay and Capt. Osborn an open rupture of friendly relations, in consequence in their unreasonable demands upon the Chinese Government.

The relations of the Chinese Government to the Great Powers of Europe were on the whole of a very amicable character. Prince Kung, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, showed himself anxious to introduce reforms, and to develop the resources of the country.

One of the most important reforms that were determined upon in the course of the year 1863, was that of the army. The Paris "Moniteur" publishes some very interesting details on this subject. The Chinese army, says the "Moniteur," which, according to official reports, should consist of 1,000,000 infantry, and 800,000 cavalry, had actually not one tenth of the number under arms. It is composed of Tartar troops, exclusively employed in the guard of

the emperor's person, and in the defence of the principal towns. These troops are, moreover, badly armed, badly officered, badly organized and devoid of all military enthusiasm. They are quite incapable of resisting the Taepings, who would have possessed themselves of Pekin long since had it not been for the European troops. Prince Kung, perceiving at length that such a state of things cannot longer be continued, and being confirmed in that view by the empress-mother, who comprehends that the safety of her son is identified with that of the dynasty, has resolved to create an active army, while retaining the one under arms. The new army is to be organized and armed after the European fashion, and commanded by European officers, or by natives educated at the military school by French professors. This school, to which none are admitted but young Chinese who show a disposition for a military life, will, it is expected, produce officers capable of contending with the Taepings.

Great concessions continued to be made to the foreign communities in the large commercial cities. The British community at Ilangchow, on the river Yang-tse, obtained from the Government a grant of 90 acres of ground. Thirty English commercial firms, three or four French manufactories, one Russian, and one American, are established there. Fifteen large business houses are in the course of construction for English subjects. A municipal council has been established, to conduct the affairs of the European community, and it pays great attention to the construction of roads. At Shanghai, these concessions to foreign communities gave rise to an interesting question. The exemption of the "foreign concessions from Chinese authority has long been claimed, and practically acted on, by the foreign communities resident in them, with the sanction and concurrence of the consular body-the Chinese tacitly yielding the right. In the autumn of 1862 it was proposed to extend the powers of the present municipality, and the British consul, having submitted certain proposals in that sense to her Majesty's minister at Pekin, received a reply, dated September 8th, 1862, that totally upsets the rights hitherto assumed. Sir F. Bruce clearly lays down that "there is great misapprehension of the position of these so-called foreign concessions. The British concession at Shanghai was neither a transfer nor a lease of the land in question to the British crown. It was simply an agreement that British subjects should be allowed to acquire land for their personal accommodation within a certain space, in order that they might have the advantage of living together. The land so acquired remains Chinese territory; it is subject to the land-tax; and if the jurisdiction of the Chinese Government over it is denied, it is done, because in China it was deemed essential, for the security of British trade, that the person and establishment of the trader should be secured from molestation." The English minister then

goes on to describe the present position of the settlement as entirely altered in its character, and to remind the consul that "the Chinese Government has never formally abandoned its right over its own subjects, nor has her Majesty's Government ever claimed or expressed any desire to exercise a protectorate over them."

In October 22d, 1862, Prince Kung informed the representatives of the foreign Governments at Pekin, that the Imperial Government had adopted a national flag, to be triangular in shape, and ten feet broad for the largest vessels, and between seven and eight feet for smaller vessels. The ground color is yellow, and a dragon is painted on it, the head pointing upward.

At the close of 1863, a meeting of the Imperial Council for Foreign Affairs was held, to consider the translation and publication of a system of international law. Mr. Burlingame, the minister of the United States at Pekin, called attention to the translation of Wheaton's work, which has become an authority in the cabinets of Europe. He requested an interview with one of the members, and four of them appeared and evinced by their intelligent interest, as well as by their presence, that they deemed the subject one of great national importance. It is remarkable that one of the reasons adduced by the Chinese authorities for the translation, was that it would serve as a guide to future embassies to foreign Powers. This implies a departure from the ancient disdainful policy of the Chinese Government toward "outside barbarians," which indicates that the torpidity for which it was notorious is at last giving way under the influence of new ideas and liberal sentiments.

On July 10th, 1863, the envoy of Denmark, Col. Raaslof, succeeded in concluding with the Chinese Government a most favorable treaty. The Chinese at first intended that the treaty recently concluded with the Belgians should be tendered to the Danish envoy on the coast, or at Tien-tsin, and that he should have nothing more. Col. Raaslof, however, penetrating this design, determined to proceed at once to Pekin, where, after three months of earnest negotiations, he succeeded in obtaining much more favorable conditions. The Danish treaty is substantially the British treaty, with this advantage for all the foreign nations, that those changes which have been yielded to the solicitations of the foreign Powers from time to time since that treaty was signed, have been placed in the Danish treaty, and are therefore not liable to be changed. Article xvi. of the treaty mentions sixteen ports as being opened, and among them Nankin, Kiukiang, Chinking and Hangchow, on the river Yang-tse, although the first named city is in the hands of the rebels. For the present the trade is carried on at these ports under river regulations, to which foreign legations have agreed. Article xii. declares the coasting trade of China open to foreign na tions, a stipulation which no former treaty contained. In the tariff, the clause prohibiting the