For several weeks he remained at Gordonsville. But learning on Aug. 7th that Pope's advance was at Culpepper Court House, he marched rapidly in that direction with his whole force, hoping to cut it off before the arrival of reenforcements. On the 9th was fought the severely contested battle of Cedar Mountain, between Jackson and Banks, in which the latter was forced back about a mile toward his supports. But Jackson almost immediately retired across the Rapidan toward Orange Court House, to await the arrival of the main body of the Confederates, which was pressing forward under Lee to the invasion of Maryland. McClellan was also by this time in motion down the peninsula, and it became an object of paramount importance with Lee to overwhelm the small force under Pope before any portion of the army of the Potomac could join it. About the 18th Lee effected a junction with Jackson, and on the next day the united Confederate army moved toward the Rapidan, Jackson keeping to the left with a view of flanking Pope. On the 20th the Rapidan was crossed, and for several days the Confederates harassed Pope by frequent attempts to cross the Rappahannock, which, it subsequently appeared, were intended to mask a flanking movement under Jackson toward Thoroughfare Gap in the Bull Run mountains, and thence to Manassas in the Federal rear.

On the 24th and 25th Jackson made rapid progress northward, moving by unfrequented roads, taking no unnecessary baggage or rations, and subsisting his men on roasted corn and whatever else the country might produce. On the 26th he passed safely through Thoroughfare Gap, and fell suddenly upon the small Union force at Manassas, capturing prisoners, cannon, and a large amount of stores. Learning this, Pope moved with his whole force to the rear, and stationed McDowell at Thoroughfare Gap to prevent the arrival of reënforcements for Jackson. The situation of the latter becom ing somewhat critical, he evacuated Manassas on the 28th, and moved through Centreville toward Gainesville, to be in the neighborhood of his supports. IIere, on the succeeding day, he was brought to bay by the united Federal forces, and had there been a proper concert of action between Pope and his generals, it seems impossible but that he should have been crushed before the arrival of Lee. As it was, he was pushed back toward the Bull Run mountains, with fearful loss, but unbroken and defiant, and the golden opportunity was lost to the Federals. Longstreet had meanwhile forced his way through Thoroughfare Gap, followed, on the night of the 29th, by Lee, and on the 30th the Confederates confronted their foe with a united army and in greatly superior numbers. Jackson had a full share in the bloody battle of that day, and after the retreat of Pope across Bull Run, led his corps to the north of Centreville, with a view of turning the Federal right and severing their connec

tions with Washington. Pope anticipated this movement by falling back a few miles to Germantown, where, on the evening of Sept. 1st, a sharp action was fought, resulting in the repulse of the Confederates.

As s

Lee was now ready for the invasion of Maryland, and Jackson was again pushed forward, as he had been during the whole campaign, to be the pioneer of the movement. On the 4th of September he occupied Leesburg, on the 5th he crossed the Potomac near the Point of Rocks, and on the morning of the 6th his advance entered Frederick, where, with a view of winning over the inhabitants to the Confederate cause, a proclamation was issued, promising them relief from the tyranny by which they were oppressed, and similar benefits. further means of conciliation, strict measures were taken to protect private property, and on Sunday, the 7th, Jackson, true to his devotional habits, publicly attended Divine service at the Presbyterian and German Reformed churches. The expected sympathy of the Marylanders, however, proved a delusion; recruiting for the Confederate army made little or no progress, and the approach of the Federal army under McClellan rendered it necessary for Lee, whose whole force was now concentrated at Frederic. to move in the direction of the upper fords of the Potomac, by which, in case of defeat, he might retire into Virginia.

One of the prime objects of the campaign was the capture of Harper's Ferry, then garrisoned by a considerable force of Federals, and containing large amounts of artillery and munitions of war. Accordingly detachments were sent to occupy Maryland Heights, in Maryland, and Loudon Heights, on the right bank of the Shenandoah, both of which command the place, while Jackson marched up the Potomac to Williamsport, and, crossing thence into Virginia. moved down to the rear of Bolivar Heights, the only point of Harper's Ferry which the Federals had fortified. The latter, though thes invested on three sides, might easily have maintained the post but for the unaccountable abandonment, by Colonel Ford, of Maryland Heights, the occupation of which by the Confederates on the 13th and 14th decided the fate of the garrison. A furious cannonade from Maryland and Loudon Heights was opened on the 14th, while Jackson pressed the garrison in the rear.

The attack was renewed on the morning of the 15th, and resulted, in a few hours, in the unconditional surrender of the place, with 11,000 troops and all the material of war.

Meanwhile the battle of South Mountain had been fought, and Lee, retreating before MeClellan, was taking position behind Antietam Creek. Foiled by the vigor and celerity of Jackson in his effort to relieve Harper's Ferry, the Federal general concentrated his forces to give battle to Lee and drive him out of Maryland. No time. therefore, was to be lost by Jackson in forming a junction with his commander; and leaving

Gen. A. P. Hill with his division to hold Harper's Ferry and finish paroling the prisoners, he crossed the Potomac at the Sheperdstown ferry on the 16th, and the same evening took post on the Confederate left wing on the historic field of Antietam. The hardest fighting of the succeeding day devolved upon him, and though the obstinate valor of the Federal troops availed to push him back some distance, the ground was gained at a cost of life never exceeded during the war. On the night of the 18th the Confederates quietly retreated into Virginia, and for several days Jackson was employed in destroying the Baltimore and Ohio railroad track from near Harper's Ferry to the North Mountain, a distance of 30 miles. Scarcely had he accomplished this work when he was called upon to repel a reconnoitring party of Federals, who crossed the Potomac near Shepherdstown and were driven back with serious loss.

During October and November Jackson remained in the valley of Virginia, Lee having meanwhile occupied and fortified Maryo's Heights, in the rear of Fredericksburg, in front of which Burnside lay, on the left bank of the Rappahannock. In the first week of December he was summoned thither by Lee, and upon his arrival took command of the right wing of the Confederate army, which he held during the eventful battle of the 13th. Though here, as at Antietam, the weakest point in the line was given him to defend, and though at one time he was in imminent danger of being flanked by Franklin, he held his ground till darkness ended the battle, at which time no important advantage had been gained in that quarter by the Federals. He even designed a night attack by massing his artillery in front and supporting the pieces with infantry, but was obliged, in consequence of a severe fire from the Federal .batteries on the opposite side of the river, to abandon the project.

For several months Jackson remained at his headquarters, ten miles below Fredericksburg, employed chiefly in preparing the official reports of his battles. He still held command of the right wing, and for services in the battle of December 13th had been promoted to be a lieutenant-general. With the exception of cavalry expeditions and occasional reconnoissances, no operations were undertaken by Gen. Hooker from the time of assuming command of the Federal army, January 26th, until the latter part of April. On the 26th of that month, how ever, he commenced the execution of a plan which he had been long maturing, and which contemplated a flank movement by one portion of his army some distance above Fredericksburg, while another portion crossed the Rappahannock below the town, and menaced it from that quarter. By a skilful ruse Jackson's corps was detained in its old position below Fredericksburg, while the bulk of the Federal army crossed the Rappahannock and the Rapidan at various fords above, and on the evening of April 30th was concentrated to the number of

four corps at Chancellorsville, about 12 miles west of Fredericksburg. The position of Hooker enabling him to threaten both Fredericsburg and Gordonsville, was strengthened during the ensuing day by the erection of breastworks and abatis. Lee was not slow to fathom the design of the Federal general, and leaving a single division to guard the heights he had so long occupied, he moved westward on the 29th of April, and threw up carthworks midway between Chancellorsville and Fredericksburg to arrest the progress of Hooker toward the latter place. During May 1st he reconnoitered the Federal lines, and finding them impregnable in the neighborhood of Chancellorsville by reason of the earthworks and abatis, he determined upon a flank movement upon Hooker's right, and selected Jackson to execute it.

The latter accepted the task with alacrity, and early on the morning of the 2d his corps commenced its march, moving toward the road leading to Germanna ford on the Rapidan, so as to strike the rear of the Federal right wing, occupied by the cleventh corps under Gen. Howard. No suspicion seems to have entered the mind of any of the Federal generals that such a movement was in progress, the Confederate attack, if made at all, being expected in front of Chancellorsville, and no precautions had been taken to fortify this part of the line. Suddenly, at about six o'clock in the evening, Jackson fell like a thunderbolt upon the unprepared Federals, who were cooking supper, or engaged in various camp duties. Formation or order was impossible in the face of the impetuous charge of the Confederates, and in an almost incredibly short time the greater part of the eleventh corps was routed and fleeing in a confused mass toward the Federal centre, which was, by this unforeseen disaster, pressed back upon Chancellorsville. By great exertion the fugitives were rallied behind other troops, and the advance of Jackson stayed. The latter, however, had no thought of pausing in his career, and having given orders to Gen. A. P. Hill to press forward.in pursuit, reserving his fire unless cavalry approached from the direction of the enemy, he rode with his staff and escort to the front. It was now nearly nine o'clock, and quite dark, and in deference to the wishes of his staff, who thought he was exposing himself needlessly to the Federal skirmishers, Jackson turned his horse to ride back toward his own lines. In the growing obscurity, the cavalcade was mistaken for Federal cavalry, and a South Caro lina regiment, in literal conformity with the orders recently issued, fired a sudden volley into it, by which Jackson was wounded in both arms, and several of his staff killed outright. He fell from his horse, exclaiming, "All my wounds are by my own men," and almost immediately a Federal column, attracted by the firing, charged over the very spot where he lay, his staff scattering in all directions at their approach. The Federals were in turn repulsed, and in the midst of a terrific artillery

fire, which swept down the Confederates by hundreds, he was placed on a litter and carried to the rear, receiving in the confusion of the moment severe contusions in his arms and sides.

His left arm was amputated on that same evening, and two days later he was removed to Guinea's station, on the Richmond and Fredericksburg railroad. For several days he continued to improve, but on the 7th, while preparations were making to remove him to Richmond, symptoms of pneumonia appeared. On the evening of that day all pain left him, and with its cessation he began rapidly to sink. He died quietly on Sunday afternoon, the 10th, exclaiming, when told by his wife of his approaching end, "Very good, very good; it is all right!" and was honored with a public funeral in Richmond on the 12th, amidst unmistakable manifestations of sorrow. Throughout the seceded States he was not less profoundly mourned, the public regret being intensified by the reflection that their great general, like the eagle killed by arrows tipped with its own plumage, had fallen under the volleys of his chosen and devoted soldiery.

The character of Jackson was developed only during the two brief but momentous years which succeeded the outbreak of the war. Had secession never taken place he might have lived and died the obscure and eccentric professor which the spring of 1861 found him. In private life, in fact, he was, like others distinguished in his profession, a comparatively dull and uninteresting man, noticeable chiefly for the depth and earnestness of his religions convictions; and few could have predicted that under so quiet an exterior he concealed an impetuous bravery rivalling that of Ney and Lannes, and an energy, ripened judgment, and command of resources to which those generals could lay no claim. Of his capacity to undertake a large independent command no test was ever made, his celebrated campaign in the Shenandoah valley having been conducted with an army not exceeding 25,000 men. But as the lieutenant of another, executing important movements of an army wing, and anticipating almost intuitively the plans of his superior, he proved himself a genius of the first order; and one can readily appreciate the significance of Lee's remark, when learning the misfortune which had befallen his favorite general: "He is better off than I am. He lost his left arm, but I have lost my right." During his residence at Lexington he became a member of the Presbyterian Church, and at his death was a deacon in that denomination. Embracing, to its fullest extent, the doctrine of predestination, he was regarded by many as a fatalist, and his religious fervor seemed to rise with the progress of the war, approaching sometimes the verge of fanaticism. He attended service regularly on Sundays, never omitted his daily devotions, encouraged prayer meetings and revivals among his troops, and in reports and despatches au

nouncing successes in the field, invariably ascribed the victory to divine interposition. To extreme simplicity of manners and dress, be united a transparent honesty of character, and a genuine humanity, which, in the midst of a civil war of unexampled fury, caused him to be respected alike by friends and foes. In person Jackson was of middle height and soldierly bearing, and his features, when not lightened up by eyes of singular brilliancy and expression, were in no respect remarkable.

JAPAN, an empire in Eastern Asia. Its real sovereign is the nikado, the ecclesiastical or spiritual emperor who resides at Miako, in the principality of Kioto, and whose personal name is only known to the imperial princes. By his order and in his name, the Government is aetually carried on by a tycoon, or temporal emperor, whose residence is at Yeddo. The name of the present tycoon is Mina Motto I.

The revenue of the mikado is partly derived from the city of Miako and its vicinity, and partly from the costly presents of the tycoon. The latter derives from the crown domains about $12,000,000 annually; in addition, the daimios (semi-independent princes) have to pay him subsidies. The receipts of twentyfive of the latter are estimated at from 1 to 53 millions, and those of twenty others at about 14 million dollars; the aggregate income of all the daimios at about 150 millions.

Japan consists of Japan proper and the de pendent islands, and is said to comprise in all no less than 3,850 islands. The total area of the empire is estimated by Engelhardt at 7,065, and by Siebold at 6,615 geographical square miles. The estimates of the population vary from 35 to 40 millions.

The ports which the Japanese have promised to open to the treaty Powers are the following: Hioga, south of Miako; Kanagawa (Yokohama), in the bay of Yeddo; Niegato (northeastern coast of Niphon); Hakodadi (on the island of Yesso); and Nagasaki (Kiusin). The commercial treaties were concluded: 1, with the United States of America, on March 31st, 1854; 2, with Great Britain, on Oct. 14th, 1854; & with Russia, Jan. 26th, 1855; 4, with the Ne therlands, Nov. 9th, 1855; 5, with Portugal, Aug. 3d, 1860; 6, with Prussia, Jan. 25th, 1861.

The tycoon is not, as was formerly supposed, the sovereign ruler of the land, in so far as seeular matters are concerned. He is in tank only the fourth prince of the empire, and was the fifth until the present incumbent was raised a degree by intermarriage with the imperial house. At Miako there are two beside the eperor that outrank him-members of the imperial court. The sole head of this Govern ment is the emperor. No change in the organic law of Japan can take place without his con sent. All rank and authority are conferred by him, except those of the hereditary princes Even they may forfeit their titles and immun ties by acts of hostility against the mikado lit erally, the sublime porte) or emperor.

The office of tycoon, though confined to one of three families, is in no respect that of a sovereign. Originally and theoretically the tycoon was but the generalissimo commanding all the military force of the country, under the direction of the emperor. He possesses hereditary domains in various parts of the country, and receives the revenue from them; but the daimios do the same. He is by virtue of his office superior in certain respects to the other hereditary princes, particularly in holding the military forces under his control. He has no power to make treaties without the imperial sanction. But for the assumption of this power, whereby he has enriched himself, while at the same time he does not admit others to a share in the profits of a foreign trade, he would have been at present, as he was in fact until lately, merely the captain-general of Japan. With all the advantages accruing from the new relations with foreign Powers, he still is the tycoon, and not the emperor, nor even a coördinate ruler with the emperor. Yeddo is not the capital of the country, as the common expression for going to Miako, even from Yeddo, shows. The Japanese go down to Yeddo, and up to Miako. The tycoon is after all but a servant of the emperor, and in the estimation of the Japanese, there is an impassable gulf between the two.

The trade of Japan with foreign countries has greatly increased since the opening of the ports. In one port alone, that of Kanagawa, the English trade increased from the value of £70,000 in 1862, to that of £112,000 in 1863. A despatch from the British chargé d'affaires, in Japan, dated September 11th, 1863, states that the value of the export trade in British vessels had increased within six months from £253,337 to £561,120, although, as the writer of the despatch observes, "during those same six months the succession of events which have transpired of an alarming and exciting character, was calculated altogether to paralyze and arrest any trading operations." For the first time raw cotton has been exported to the amount of 795,207 lbs. What may be the capabilities of the country in respect to cotton growing is uncertain. It is a point upon which no information whatever is given by the different writers who describe the country from personal observation. Trade has hitherto been much despised. "A millionnaire merchant, if one exists in Japan," says the writer we have already quoted, "is obliged to prostrate himself in the dust before the lowest two-sworded retainer of a daimio, if he happens to meet one on the road. Wealth bestows no social position. The most prosperous trader dares not appear on horseback in the streets of Yeddo; if he did, he would be instantly dragged from the saddle, and ignominiously rolled in the mud."

The only portion of the current history of Japan which is of interest for Americans and Europeans, is the history of the relations of the Japanese Government to the civilized nations,

with which, in late years, commercial treaties have been concluded. This opening of communication with foreign nations met with a violent opposition on the part of many of the daimios, and there has ever since been an unceasing feud between a party friendly to the foreigners and an anti-foreign party. The tycoon was at the head of the former; the mikado, or spiritual emperor, has openly espoused the cause of the other party, and seems to have used this occasion for recovering a more active and direct influence upon the administration of the State than his predecessors have exercised.

In January, 1862, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Ando Tousimano Kami, suspected of being favorable to the Europeans, was attacked in Yeddo, in open daylight; Ando defended himself bravely, killed one of his assailants and put the others to flight. He deemed it best, however, to leave the Council of Ministers, and was replaced by one supposed to be hostile to the foreigners. At the end of March a Japanese embassy left Yokohama to visit those European courts with which Japan has established. commercial intercourse, and to obtain from them permission that the opening of the ports of Yeddo and Osaca be postponed to a period more favorable to the pacific intentions of the tycoon.

The anti-foreign daimios established a league and went to Kioto, to lodge before the mikado a complaint that the tycoon, "an unfaithful servant of the legitimate emperor," had violated the constitution of Japan by concluding treaties with foreigners (May 26th, 1862). The mikado summoned the tycoon to defend himself. The tycoon charged with this mission one of his ministers, who, rather than accept the commission, committed suicide (hari-kari). Another functionary went to Kioto, but was so affected by his reception as likewise to commit suicide. The tycoon then (July, 1862) promised to go to Kioto himself.

While these negotiations were going on, two English marines, belonging to the guard of Col. Neale, chargé d'affaires of the Queen of England, were assassinated at the English legation at Yeddo, by a Japanese officer, who immediately after committed suicide (June 25th, 1862). Col. Neale withdrew from Yeddo to Yokohama. In September, 1862, four English subjects, Richardson, Clarke, Marshall and Madame Borradaile, were attacked on the high road which leads from Yokohama to Yeddo, by the escort of a high Japanese functionary, a relation of the Prince of Satsuma. Mr. Richardson was killed; his companions escaped, but two of them were severely wounded.

Toward the close of the year 1862, the Japanese embassy returned to Yeddo, having visited Paris, London, Berlin, the Hague, St. Petersburg and Lisbon. They had achieved their object, having obtained the consent of those European governments that the opening of the ports of Yeddo and Yokohama might be put off.

At the beginning of the year 1863, a British fleet, under the command of Admiral Kuper, arrived in the bay of Yeddo, not far from the capital of the tycoon, in order to support by force, if necessary, the demand which Colonel Neale was to make for a reparation of the crimes committed against British subjects. Col. Neale was instructed to demand the execution of the murderers of Mr. Lenox Richardson; also, that the Government of Yeddo should formally express a regret at not having prevented the crime of which Mr. Richardson had been the innocent victim, and pay a sum of £100,000 as the expenses of the expedition to Japan, and £35,000 for the persons or heirs of persons who had been wounded or killed at the English legation in Yeddo, and on the high road from Yokohama to Yeddo. The commander of the French squadron in the Japanese seas, Admiral Jaurès, in accordance with the instructions received from his Government, was to join Admiral Kuper in supporting the demands to be made by Colonel Neale. The Government of Yeddo tried to dodge a definite reply to the English demands. They asked for a delay until the return of the tycoon from the interview with the mikado; they pretended that the tycoon had no authority over the murderers of Mr. Richardson, as they were the subjects of the Prince of Satsuma, and finally they maintained that the tycoon, while defending the foreigners in his vicinity, had neither the right nor the power to protect them against the hatred of the national party. Col. Neale twice granted the demanded delay, but being at length convinced that the Japanese Government did not act toward him in good faith, he left the matter in the hands of Admiral Kuper, who made at once the necessary preparations, and announced to the Government of Yeddo that, unless within a specified time they would comply with the demands of the British Government, he would have recourse to coercive measures. This language hal in so far the desired result, that the Government of Yeddo consented to place in the hands of Col. Neale a sum of 2,500,000 francs.

The relations of the minister of the United States, Mr. Pruyn, to the Government of the tycoon were for a long time more friendly than those of other treaty Powers. Mr. Pruyn remained at Yeddo, when all the other ambassadors had left, and more than once the Japanese Government invoked his interposition in the progress of their negotiations with England anl France. Still he was desired, as well as the other ministers, to withdraw from Yeddo and remove to Yokohama. On May 24th, the buildings occupied by the American legation in Yeddo were totally destroyed by fire, and Mr. Pruyn succeeded, with difficulty, in saving the books and archives of the legation. Mr. Pruyn received at once several visits of condolence from various governors of foreign affairs by order of the Gorogio (council of state), at all of which it seemed to be taken for granted that he would at once leave for

Yokohama. He was assured, however, of protection while in Yeddo. Mr. Pruyn declined to leave, and demanded that other quarters should be assigned to him. On May 31st, he was informed by one of the governors of foreign affairs, that a conspiracy to attack the American legation that night had been discovered; that ample provision for his protection had been made, but that his withdrawal to Yokohama would relieve the Government from great anxiety. Mr. Pruyn, whose intention had been to leave on the next morning, now consented to leave immediately.

The mikado, in the meantime, ordered the tycoon to expel the barbarians, and accordingly the ambassadors of all the treaty powers were informed, on June 24th, that the opened ports were to be closed, and the foreigners to be removed, as the Japanese could have no intercourse with them. Mr. Pruyn replied to this intimation, that he would insist on the maintenance of the treaty, and that the citizens of the United States would remain in Japan, protected by the U. S. naval forces. In a letter, addressed to Mr. Seward, dated Yokohama, June 27th, Mr. Pruyn expressed his opinion that the public mind in Japan would not be quieted until the treaties could be ratified by the mikado, and proposed to that end a naval demonstration upon Osacca (20 miles from Kioto), backed, if necessary, by a land force to move upon Kioto.

On the 26th of June, the American merchant steamer Pembroke was attacked in the Straits of Simonosaki, which separate the island of Kiusin and Niphon, by a Japanese armed bark and the brig Laurie, both belonging to the Prince of Nagato. It being quite dark, the steamer fortunately escaped. Mr. Pruyn at once informed the Japanese Government that full satisfaction and indemnity would be de manded for this outrage. He at the same time sent to the scene of the outrage the U. S. steamer Wyoming, which, on July 16th, after a brief engagement blew up the Japanese steamer, sunk the brig, and silenced six land batteries, with the loss of four killed and seven wounded.

On the 8th of July, the French steam-gunboat Keshchang, of. four guns, had been fired into by the same ships, and by batteries on shore, and reached Nagasaki almost in a sinking condition. When this intelligence reaches Yokohama, Admiral Jaurès, with the Semiramis, a steam frigate of 35 guns, and the Tancrède, of four guns, was at once despatched to punish the outrage. When just out of the harbor, he spoke the Dutch steamship Medusa, of 16 guns, which had been fired into on the 11th in the same straits, and received from her captain charts, showing the position of the vessels and the batteries. On the 20th of July, Admiral Jaurès reached the straits, landed a force of 150 men, under the cover of his guns, seized and destroyed one of the bat teries, blew up a powder magazine and daimio's