CANNON-BALL TREE

The various methods of closing the breech of a gun are described under BREECH-LOADING, the systems of rifling under RIFLED ARMS. See also CARRONADE, CARTRIDGE, GUNPOWDER, HOWITZER, MACHINE GUN, MORTAR, and SHELL.

Cannon-ball Tree (Lecythis bracteata or Couroupita guianensis), a large tree of the order Lecythidaceae, a native of Guiana, but introduced into the West Indies; the fruit is large, about the size of a 36-pound shot,' nearly round, and is sweet, fragrant, and wholesome. The hard woody shell of this fruit is used for drinking-vessels.

Cannstatt, a town of Würtemberg, beautifully situated on the Neckar, 3 miles NE. of Stuttgart by rail and tram. It owes its origin to the Romans, many traces of whose presence still are found. It has two royal residences; thirty mineral springs, which are much frequented during the season; and manufactures of iron, cottons, tobacco, &c. Pop. (1875) 15,064; (1885) 18,031.

Cannula (dim. of Lat. canna, 'a reed;' often incorrectly written canula), a term applied to small tubes of different kinds used in surgery; especially to a tube inclosing a trocar, or perforator (with drawn after it has effected the introduction of the tube), used for evacuating air or fluid from any cavity in the body; and to the tube for the patient to breathe through, which is inserted into the windpipe after the operation of Tracheotomy (q.v.).

Cano, ALONSO, a Spanish painter, born at Granada in 1601, received his first instructions in the principles of art from his father, who was an architect, and attained celebrity so early that in 1638 or 1639 he was appointed court painter and architect to the king. Cano was of a hasty temper, and was accused of having murdered his wife in a fit of jealousy, but the accusation appears to have been quite groundless. He was subjected to the torture; but no confession having been elicited, he was acquitted and received again into the royal favour, named residentiary of Granada, and spent his last years in acts of devotion and charity. He died 3d October 1667. In Fuseli's opinion, he excelled all his contemporaries except Velasquez. His eminence in the three departments of the fine arts-sculpture, painting, and architecture obtained for him the hyperbolical title of the 'Spanish Michael Angelo." His pictures, marked by graceful design and pleasing colouring, are very numerous, and are preserved in Granada, Seville, Madrid, Malaga, and other Spanish cities.

Canoe (from a Caribbean word through the Span. canoa), originally, a light narrow boat, made of the hollowed stem of a tree or of bark, and propelled by paddles. The ancient British and many native canoes are dug-outs,' being simply stems of trees hollowed by stone implements, shells, or fire, and then shaped, and often sharpened at either end; canoes hollowed out of the trunks of oaks have been dug up in considerable numbers in the United Kingdom. The Canadian birchbark canoe is a light, buoyant, frail-looking, but serviceable bark. In building it a skeleton is made of light wood, the casing of birch-bark is put on

Canadian Trapper's Canoe.

transversely, with the broadest strips amidships, and sewn together with the fibrous roots of fir-trees, while the seams are dressed with gum. It has no keel, and neither stem nor stern, but runs to a point at each end; and neither nails nor pegs are used in its construction. The outer skin of the Canadian' canoes so popular on the Thames is made of alternate strips of light and dark hard-grained woods,

inch thick, grooved, bound, and glued together; a layer of broader strips, placed crosswise, forms the inner skin. The timber used is steamed and bent when moist on to a mould the exact size of the The birch-bark canoes of South proposed canoe.

America and the native Australian gum-tree bark canoe are made of one piece of bark. Esquimaux canoes are generally of seal or walrus skin stretched round hole or well in the centre for the occupant, over whalebone; some Labrador canoes have a and are light enough to be carried on the head. The canoe of Greenland and Hudson Strait is flatbottomed and flat-sided. Many of the Polynesian canoes are hollowed out of a single log. Others are with outriggers. The Malay and Dyak canoes are of planks cunningly fastened together, and fitted long and narrow. feet long, and the double ones-with deck placed The largest Fiji canoes are 100 between them-of 70 feet can carry from 40 to 50 persons. Those of the Solomon Islands have a palette-shaped sail made of a mat. The war canoes have often elaborately carved ends. Stanley in his descent of the Congo encountered a war canoe with 40 men rowing on each side, and 10 in the bow, while 8 men guided at the stern with ivory-tipped paddles. Two or three of his own canoes for exploring purposes were of teak, 70 feet long, and very heavy. Others, on the inland African lakes, are made of reeds.

Mr

Modern British canoes have been made of paper, tin, and india-rubber, but they are usually constructed of oak, cedar, or pine. A tin canoe was sailed on the Thames in 1847, and an Esquimaux canoe had been exhibited there prior to that date; but the revival of British canoeing is due to the efforts (since 1850) of Mr John MacGregor, who when an infant was rescued from the burning Indiaman Kent, and the profits of whose lectures and published works-upwards of £100,000-have been handed over to a number of philanthropic institutions. His Rob Roy canoe for navigating eastern waters was 14 feet long, 26 inches wide, with a 7-foot paddle; and its weight, including paddles, masts, and sails, was 72 lb. It was of oak below, decked with cedar, had an apron of white waterproof, and the sails were dyed blue to resist the glare of the sun. But of late years the type of canoe has greatly changed. Messrs Tredwen and Baden-Powell's Pearl and Nautilus canoes have both the head of the boat raised and its shoulder broadened, the modern cruising canoe being on an average 15 feet long, with a 30-inch beam; they are mostly fitted with two larger sails, and, with a metal centre-board and deep rudder, can sail as close to the wind, when tacking, as a yacht. Mr T. H. Holding's Severn canoe (1887), weighing 136-175 lb., has been largely adopted both in England and Scotland. The Royal Canoe Club rules limit the weight of cruising canoes to 200 lb., and the sail area to 75 square feet. A minor improvement of some importance was the invention of the back-board on movable centres, with a deviation which leaves the spine untouched, by means of which the canoeist can lean back at any angle. A speed of 40 miles a day has been covered on lakes and smooth water; racing canoes 20 feet long, and 18 inches broad, attain a speed of 8 miles an hour. Latterly a new mode of sailing has come into use: instead of sitting in the well, the crew sits on the side of the deck, just aft

amidships, and thus leans outward to balance the wind pressure, steering the boat by a tiller fitted on deck. The long-voyage equipment for a canoeist must include most of the following articles for boat gear-tent, cooking apparatus, compass, cork seat, painter, air-bed, pistol or revolver, lamp, water-bottle, waterproof sheet, fishing appliances, &c.; and for dress-a pith hat, woven cap, Norfolk jackets, flannel trousers, shirts, and under-vests, cape and hood, sou'-wester, shoes, Macintosh coat, waterproof boots, slippers, and brushes and comb, &c.

The Royal Canoe Club, of which H.R. H. the Prince of Wales is commodore, was founded in 1866, and has now 200 members in different parts of the world. There are some honorary lady members. It is said that only one member of the club has lost his life, and on that occasion his canoe came safely to land with its sails and flags flying: the occupant had fallen out and perished in bog water. Indeed, the modern canoe, in spite of its great sail area, is the safest type of pleasure-boat existing, and will ride out open boats many times its size. Hull, Liverpool, Newcastle, Sunderland, Birmingham, Glasgow, and Leith have all their contingent of canoeists. The British Canoe Association (founded in 1887) has about 70 members, and holds an annual meet. The American Canoe Club numbered some 5000 members in 1888. The Octoroon, 16 feet long and 23 inches broad, crossed from Boulogne to Dover in 11 hours, 19th August 1867; Mr Fowler crossed from Boulogne to Sandgate, standing in an india-rubber twin canoe (the Podoscaphe), in 12 hours, 19th August 1878; and in 1887 a youth named Henderson paddled from Dover to Calais in a very small canoe in 11 hours, having with him neither food nor water.

See MacGregor's A Thousand Miles in the Rob Roy Canoe, and Rob Roy on the Baltic, Jordan, and Zuyder Zee; Baden-Powell's Canoe Travelling (1871); Inwards' Cruise of the Ringleader; R. L. Stevenson's Inland Cruise; Holding's Cruise of the Osprey (1878), and Watery Wanderings (1886); and Bishop's Voyage of Paper Canoe (1878). A useful list of works on canoeing is appended to the rules of the R. C. C. The Model Yachtsman and Canoeist is the only organ of the sport in England, though the Field contains weekly reports; the American Canoeist represents the American Canoe Association.

4

Canon, a word originally Greek, connected with kanna, a cane or reed,' and (like the Hebrew gāneh) signifying a straight staff used as a measuring-rod, is applied in various arts and sciences to what serves for a rule or standard. From this general sense, which it bears-e.g. in Galatians, vi. 16, the word by the middle of the 3d century had come to mean the type of Christian doctrine recognised as orthodox by the Catholic Church, and afterwards was particularly employed to designate collectively the Scriptures which were accepted by the Christian_church as the standard or rule of faith (see BIBLE and APOCRYPHA). The first instances of the latter meaning are found in the 59th canon of_the Council of Laodicea (363 A.D.), and in the Epistola festalis of Athanasius. Hence arose the use of the word to signify a list (e.g. that of the clergy at the Council of Nicæa in 325), and in this sense it is still used to denote the catalogue or register of Catholic saints. The use of the plural form to denote church precepts occurs about 300, and it begins to be specially transferred to the decrees of church councils about the middle of the 4th century (see CANON LAW). The same word is used to designate the fixed form of prayer said by the priests of the Roman Catholic and Greek churches before, at, and after the consecration of the Host.

In

Canon (Lat. canonicus), an ecclesiastical dignitary (so called as living under a rule, or as following the rule or canon of divine service, or again, most probably, as inscribed on the canon or roll of ecclesiastical officers) holding a prebend in a cathedral or collegiate church. His office is of no great antiquity. According to Pasquier, canons are mainly divided into Canons Regular and Canons Secular. This, however, is not precisely true, for the term canon was applied in the 4th century to cenobites living under a common rule; and the office of canon is supposed by some antiquaries to have been introduced by Baudin or Baldwin, Archbishop of Tours (546-52) under Clothaire I., but was more probably first instituted by Chrodegand, or Chrodegang, Bishop of Metz, in 763. It is at least certain that he was the author of the oldest canonical rule, which was simply an adaptation of the monastic rule commonly but erroneously attributed to St Augustine, to the priests and clerks specially attached to the service of a cathedral or other church, but differing therefrom chiefly by omitting the vow of poverty, and allowing canons to retain a lifeinterest in private property. It enjoined on the canons manual labour, the practice of silence at certain times, confession twice a year, and other duties needless to specify. The canons formed the council of the bishop, and assisted him in the government of his diocese. They lived in a house called a monastery, slept in a common room, ate at the same table, and were originally supported out of the episcopal revenues. This institute was encouraged by Charlemagne, under whom provisions concerning it were enacted at the Councils of Aix-la-Chapelle in 788, and Mentz in 813. 816 Louis the Pious induced the Council of Aix-laChapelle to draw up a general rule of 147 articles for the whole body of canons. Canons found their way not long afterwards into England, Scotland, and Ireland. Various reforms of canons were made in the 11th and beginning of the 12th century, notably the institution for the canons regular of rules for community of life and abolition of private worship imposed by Pope Nicolas II. in 1059, and by Alexander II. in 1063, and the foundation of the Austin canons by Gervase, Archbishop of Rheims, in 1067, followed up by Ivo, Bishop of Chartres (10901115). Although the so-called rule of St Augustine was adopted in various places, it was not till 1139 that Innocent II. decreed, and the Council of Lateran, that all canons regular should be bound by that rule, and from that time they took generally the title of canons regular of St Augustine, or Austin Canons (see AUGUSTINIANS). They were further dealt with in a reform enforced by a bull of Benedict XII. in 1339. Gradually, however, many began to emancipate themselves from the restrictions of monastic life, and to live independent of any rule, which is not at all surprising, for the canons were wont to keep apart from the 'lower clergy,' as they called parish priests and others who really laboured to impart religious instruction. They were often of noble families, loved titles at Lyons, one of the noble chapters,' every member of which had to prove several descents of nobility in the case of both his parents, they were called counts—and in general were men of the world rather than true churchmen. Most of these reformed or remodelled canons were called Black Canons, from wearing a black cassock; others, White Canons, from wearing a white habit, like the Premonstratenses of Picardy in France, and the canons of St Victor at Paris and Marseilles. In England, while there is some ground for holding that the clergy established by Augustine at the church of Canterbury were rather canons regular than monks, there is no positive evidence of the

CANON

introduction of canons regular till the beginning of the 12th century, when they appear at Gloucester, and somewhat later in London. They were reformed by Cardinal Wolsey in 1519, in virtue of a bull of Leo X., but shared in the general fall of monastic institutions in 1539. The class of secular canons, whose manner of life was not conventual, and who therefore escaped destruction in England when the monasteries were abolished by Henry VIII., probably originated in a tendency to relax the severity of rule enjoined on the regulars, which indeed was hardly less stringent than in the case of ordinary monks. Secular canons still exist in the Anglican Church, and their duties-making allowance for the difference between the Roman Catholic and Anglican religions-are much the same in kind as they were before the Reformation. See CATHEDRAL.

Canon, in Music (from the Gr. kanon, 'a rule'), is the species of Imitation (q.v.) most strictly according to rule. The melody given out by one part is repeated note for note by the successive parts which follow at any interval of time and position in the scale. When produced between two parts it is called 'two in one,' when between three, three in one,' at the octave, fifth, or any other interval. Two or more canons may be carried on simultaneously; a piece for eight parts, consisting of four canons each between two voices heard simultaneously, is termed a canon 'eight in four.' Other parts may be heard, not in imitation, along with those in canon. The imitation may also be made by means of the devices of inversion, diminution, augmentation, retrogression, &c. The latter is termed a canon ‘cancrizans,' from its crablike motion. When a canon terminates by a few notes not in imitation, forming a cadence, it is called finite; but when it returns again to the commencement it becomes 'circular,' or 'infinite.' Canons are found in both instrumental and vocal works, and composers of all ages have shown their skill in constructing them. They abound in the works of the older writers, and occasionally considerable works were constructed wholly in canone.g. a Mass by Alessandro Scarlatti. Frequently they were more curious and enigmatical than beautiful; in modern music they appear in their proper aspect as incidental, or as merely an ingenious play upon notes. Byrd's well-known Non nobis Domine may be referred to as a specimen of A full treatment of the subject will be found in the works upon counterpoint and fugue by Marpurg, Cherubini, or Ouseley.

canon.

Cañon (sometimes spelt canyon; Span. a cannon,' tube,' 'gorge), the name given in western North America to a deep gorge or river ravine, between high precipitous cliffs. One of the best examples is the far-famed cañon of the Colorado (q.v.); see also SNAKE RIVER.

Canoness (canonica). The title of canoness was given at the close of the 8th century to a class of women living in common under a somewhat laxer rule than that of nuns, and originating in the Frank empire in imitation of the chapters of canons then recently instituted. They took the vows of chastity and obedience, but not that of poverty, and were not cloistered, though they had a common table and dormitory, and were bound to the recitation of the breviary, as were

nuns.

Their occupations were chiefly education of girls, transcription and embellishment of church office-books, and embroidery of vestments. The advantages of such institutions as asylums in a rough age were soon visible, and they multiplied in consequence, but as in many houses the religious motive had little to do with entrance, a distinction was drawn ere long between canonesses

some

regular and secular. The secular canonesses were for the most part members of princely or noble families, practised much state and luxury, and retained none of the rule save the common dormitory and the recitation of the Hours in choir. In Germany, several abbesses of canonesses were princesses of the empire, kept up feudal state, and furnished contingents to the imperial army from their vassals; and at the Reformation chapters adopted the new opinions, and subsist to the present day as Protestant foundations, enjoying the revenues, and admitting to membership only ladies of noble birth or daughters of distinguished members of the military and civil services, whose sole obligation is celibacy during membership. The institute never spread beyond the limits of the empire, and the non-German houses were chiefly in Hainault, Flanders, and Lorraine.

Canonical Hours are the hours of day and night fixed for the reciting or chanting of the several parts of the divine office in the Church of Rome, but they are no longer strictly adhered to except in certain monastic orders. See BREVIARY.

Canonicals, a term used to describe the proper ecclesiastical dress of the clergy. See VESTMENTS. is a solemn act by which the pope publicly proCanonisation in the Roman Catholic Church claims the sanctity of a servant of God, whom he thereupon proposes to the veneration and cultus of the universal church. As a rule it is the final act of a lengthy juridical process, of which a former stage has been completed by the decree of Beatification (q.v.). To obtain this preliminary honour, the reputed saint must pass a strict examination of his virtues, and give proof of his performance of miracles. The decree of beatification declares him to be among the citizens of heaven, and accords him the title of Blessed, but the cultus, including the celebration of his feast-day, proper offices in missal and breviary, and the public veneration of his image or relics, is permitted only in a specified country, diocese, or religious order. Canonisation, which follows only on evidence being produced of fresh miracles performed by the Beatus, gives him the full title of Saint, and enjoins his cultus upon the whole church.

This formal grant of a heavenly rank and dignity to a deceased person has an analogy with the Apotheosis (q.v.) of ancient Rome. In the primitive Christian church the germs of the modern custom are to be found in the honours publicly paid to the martyrs. Altars were set up at their tombs, the anniversaries of their triumphs were celebrated with religious rites, and their names commemorated in the liturgy. Similar honours came shortly to be bestowed on the confessors or those who suffered imprisonment or pains short of actual martyrdom for their faith; and finally, when the days of persecution were over, the status of a confessor and the title of saint were extended to all who died with a reputation for eminent sanctity or for the working of miracles, which was taken as an almost infallible token of sanctity. For many centuries the appellation of saint was given to individuals, as it were, by popular acclamation. Martyrologies, menologies, calendars, and the like, were composed, which gave with more or less discernment and authority the names of the generally acknowledged saints, while it would fall to the bishop to decide to whom he should assign a feast-day or ritual commemoration within the limits of his own jurisdiction. Grave mistakes were admittedly made. Thus, St Martin of Tours is said to have miraculously discovered that a pretended martyr much honoured in his diocese, and over whose tomb the bishop had erected an altar, was no other than a

robber executed for his crimes. Legendary acts,' migrating from country to country, were a frequent source of confusion, à curious instance of which may be found in the story of Barlaam and Josaphat (q.v.), which has procured a place in the Roman martyrology for the pious memory of Buddha.

It was not until a comparatively late period that a regular form of procedure equivalent to canonisation was adopted. Application had, indeed, in early times been made to Rome for sanction of the cultus of some holy person, as in the case of Vigilius, Bishop of Trent, said to have been martyred in the first decade of the 5th century. But the earliest acknowledged instance of a solemn decree of canonisation is that of Udalric or Ulric, Bishop of Augsburg, declared to be a saint by John XVI. in 993 A.D. A little short of two hundred years later (1170 A.D.) Alexander III. reserved the right of canonising exclusively to the Holy See, and made it unlawful to render public cultus to any person, however celebrated for miracles, without the sanction of the pope. There had apparently been some ground for the decree; for in the pontificate of this same Alexander, the monks of a certain convent had publicly venerated as a saint a member of their community, who, in a fit of drunkenness, had been beaten to death by his religious brethren. The new rules were, however, not strictly observed, and abuses continued. | Urban VIII., in two constitutions, 1625 and 1634, made more stringent regulations, and laid down the procedure in cases of canonisation, which, with slight modifications, is in force at the present day. It was strictly forbidden to give any public honour whatever to a reputed saint, to exhibit his picture in church, or even to apply to such a one the title of saint,' without explanation. The pope, how ever, declared that he did not thereby intend to prejudice the case of those who had received immemorial cultus through the general consent of the church, or whose cultus had obtained any special sanction from his predecessors. The exception is important.

Canonisation, without a special dispensation, cannot be decreed until fifty years have elapsed since the decease of the claimant for the honour. The process which precedes the decree observes all the forms of a suit at law. Two things must be established by competent witnesses-eminent virtues, technically called virtues in an heroic degree,' and the performance of miracles. The virtues, however heroic, will not be enough without miracles, and the miracles, however numerous and extraordinary, will not suffice without heroic virtue. In the case of the martyrs only, the requirements under the head of virtue are naturally less rigorous, all that is needed being proof of certain dispositions regarded as a proper preparation for true martyrdom. The first step is taken in the country or diocese of the servant of God by the ordinary, who sets up his court and examines witnesses, who speak, not now of virtues in particular, nor in proof of definite miracles, but of the existence of fama, or a reputation for sanctity. The bishop, or his vicar-general with assessors, sits as judge. The postulator selects and summons the witnesses in favour of the cause. An official corresponding to the promotor fidei, or the 'devil's advocate,' at Rome, watches the case to see that all the forms of the law are strictly observed, and a notary takes down the evidence, which, with all the documents compulsed' or put into court, is transmitted to Rome, to be there laid before the Congregation of Rites, whose business it is to sift and examine the evidence; and finally, but not until the expiration of ten years, report to the pope.

It is not necessary to describe the several stages

If the

through which the process is conducted. promoter of the faith is satisfied, the pope takes the cause into his own hands, issues remissorial letters to a committee of the Congregation of Rites, which will then have to examine the virtues and miracles specifically. The cause is now said to be introduced.' So far the juridical decision is equivalent to the finding of a grand jury that there is ground for sending the case to trial. The introduction of the cause-i.e. of the pontifical process, entitles the beatificandus to be called Venerable. Very many have attained to this point in the proceedings, and no further. The legal expenses are considerable; and apart from the merits of the candidate, the motive power, such as the patronage of princes or the influence of a powerful religious order, is often wanting. If, however, the candidate passes successfully through the ordeal of the pontifical process, a decree of beatification is pronounced, and a festival-day, with proper office and the annexed privileges, is conceded to a specified locality or community, beyond which the cultus must on no account be extended. Before the further process of canonisation can be instituted, as has been said, the beatus must have worked a certain number of miracles since his beatification, and if these are such as can be brought into court, the case once more passes through the hands of several congregations, the last of which is held in presence of the pope, when the final decree is drawn up and agreed upon.

The ceremony of canonisation takes place in the Vatican basilica, and is one of the most solemn and imposing of all papal functions. It opens with a grand procession of pope and cardinals, with the image of the saint borne on banners. The pope then takes his seat on the throne, surrounded with his court. The postulator of the cause, generally a person of high rank, is led to the steps of the throne, and there petitions that the blessed servant of God may be enrolled in the catalogue of saints. The pope replies that so grave a matter requires light and counsel from heaven. The litanies are thereupon chanted, and the demand of the postulator renewed. Again the pope requires to ascertain the will of God by prayer, and the Veni Creator is sung. After a third request the pope announces that the beatus is enrolled in the canon of the saints, and that his memory is to be celebrated on a certain day throughout the church. Other ceremonies follow, with a high mass, at which the pope officiates, and at which the several cardinals concerned present mystical offerings, ornamented candles of wax, turtle doves and other live birds in gold and silver cages, costly flagons of wine, &c.

It must not be supposed that these lengthy juridical proceedings and ceremonies take place on all occasions of papal canonisation. For, besides what is called the formal canonisation, there is another process called equipollent or equivalent canonisation. This is founded upon the before-mentioned exceptions of Urban VIII.—i.e. upon proof of immemorial cultus, or of some papal sanction given to cultus prior to the date of Urban's constitution. In such cases the pope may at once pronounce the decree. Equipollent beatification is a summary process of a similar kind. The pope accepts the results of the ordinary process, and at once decrees beatification.

Equipollent beatification and the earlier stages of the process may be illustrated by the recent case of the English martyrs of the 16th and 17th centuries, which possesses some interest as being the first instance of the introduction of a cause relating to any English-speaking person since the Reformation. On June 19, 1874, Cardinal Manning instituted the ordinary process in due form. He