3

body. They differ also, in the one taking place in a plane, the other, in all directions: the ærial undulations, being spherical. Emily. But if the air moves backwards, as well as forwards, how can its motion extend so as to convey sound to a distance? Mrs. B. The first sphere of undulations, which are produced immediately around the sonorous body, by pressing against the contiguous air, condenses it. The condensed air, though impelled forward by the pressure, reacts on the first set of undulations, driving them back again. The second set of undulations which have been put in motion, in their turn, communicate their motion, and are themselves driven back, by reaction. Thus, there is a succession of waves in the air, corresponding with the succession of waves in the water.

Caroline. The vibrations of sound, must extend much further than the circular waves in water, since sound is conveyed to a great distance.

Mrs. B. The air is a fluid so much less dense than water, that motion is more easily communicated to it. The report of a cannon produces vibrations of the air, which extend to several miles around.

Emily. Distant sound takes some time to reach us, since it is produced at the moment the cannon is fired; and we see the light of the flash, long before we hear the report.

Mrs. B. The air is immediately put in motion, by the firing of a cannon; but it requires time for the vibrations to extend to any distant spot. The velocity of sound, is computed to be at the rate of 1142 feet in a second.

Caroline. With what astonishing rapidity the vibrations must be communicated! But the velocity of sound varies, I suppose, with that of the air which conveys it. If the wind sets towards us from the cannon, we must hear the report sooner than if it set the other way.

Mrs. B. The direction of the wind makes less difference in the velocity of sound, than you would imagine. If the wind sets from us, it bears most of the ærial waves away, and renders the sound fainter; but it is not very considerably longer in reaching the ear, than if the wind blew towards us. This uniform velocity of sound, enables us to determine the distance of the object, from which it proceeds; as that of a vessel at sea, firing a cannon, or that of a thunder cloud. If we do not hear the thunder, till half a minute after we see the lightning, we conclude the cloud to be at the distance of six miles and a half.

27. How are the vibrations propagated? 28. How can we prove that sound, does not travel as rapidly as light? 29. At what rate is sound said to travel? 30. Is the velocity much influenced by the direction of the wind? 31. How will sound enable us to judge of the distance of objects?

Emily. Pray, how is the sound of an echo produced?

Mrs. B. When the ærial vibrations meet with an obstacle, having a hard and regular surface, such as a wall, or rock, they are reflected back to the ear, and produce the same sound a second time; but the sound will then appear to proceed, from the object by which it is reflected. If the vibrations fall perpendicularly on the obstacle, they are reflected back in the same line; if obliquely, the sound returns obliquely, in the opposite direction, the angle of reflection being equal to the angle of incidence.

Caroline. Oh, then, Emily, I now understand why the echo of my voice behind our house is heard so much plainer by you than it is by me, when we stand at the opposite ends of the gravel walk. My voice, or rather, I should say, the vibrations of air it occasions, fall obliquely on the wall of the house, and are reflected by it, to the opposite end of the gravel walk.

Emily. Very true; and we have observed, that when we stand in the middle of the walk, opposite the house, the echo returns to the person who spoke.

Mrs. B. Speaking-trumpets, are constructed on the principle, that sound is reflected. The voice, instead of being diffused in the open air, is confined within the trumpet; and the vibrations which would otherwise spread laterally, fall against the sides of the instrument, and are reflected from the different points of incidence, so as to combine with those vibrations which proceed straight forwards. The vibrations are thus forced onwards, in the direction of the trumpet, so as greatly to increase the sound, to a person situated in that direction. Figure 7, plate 14, will give you a clearer idea, of the speaking-trumpet; in this, lines are drawn to represent the manner, in which we may imagine the sound to be reflected. There is a point in front of the trumpet, F, which is denominated its focus, because the sound is there more intense, than at any other spot. The trumpet used by deaf persons, acts on the same principle; although it does not equally increase the sound.

Emily. Are the trumpets used as musical instruments, also constructed on this princíple?

Mrs. B. So far as their form tends to increase the sound, they are; but, as a musical instrument, the trumpet becomes itself the sonorous body, which is made to vibrate by blowing into it, and communicates its vibrations to the air.

I will attempt to give you, in a few words, some notion of the nature of musical sounds, which, as you are fond of music, must be interesting to you.

32. How are echoes produced? 33. What is the operation and effect of the speaking-trumpet (fig. 7, plate 14)?

If a sonorous body be struck in such a manner, that its vibrations, are all performed in regular times, the vibrations of the air, will correspond with them; and striking in the same regular manner on the drum of the ear, will produce the same uniform sensation, on the auditory nerve, and excite the same uniform idea, in the mind; or, in other words, we shall hear one musical tone.

But if the vibrations of the sonorous body, are irregular, there will necessarily follow a confusion of ærial vibrations; for a second vibration may commence, before the first is finished, meet it half way on its return, interrupt it in its course, and produce harsh jarring sounds, which are called discords.

Emily. But each set of these irregular vibrations, if repeated alone, and at equal intervals, would, I suppose, produce a musical tone? It is only their irregular interference, which occasions discord.

Mrs. B. Certainly. The quicker a sonorous body vibrates, the more acute, or sharp, is the sound produced; and the slower the vibrations, the more grave will be the note.

Caroline. But if I strike any one note of the piano-forte, repeatedly, whether quickly or slowly, it always gives the same

tone.

The

Mrs. B. Because the vibrations of the same string, at the same degree of tension, are always of a similar duration. quickness, or slowness of the vibrations, relate to the single tones, not to the various sounds which they may compose, by succeeding each other. Striking the note in quick succession, produces a more frequent repetition of the tone, but does not increase the velocity of the vibrations of the string.

The duration of the vibrations of strings, or wires, depends upon their length, their thickness, or weight, and their degree of tension: thus, you find, the low bass notes are produced by long, thick, loose strings; and the high treble notes by short, small, and tight strings.

Caroline. Then, the different length, and size, of the strings of musical instruments, serve to vary the duration of the vibrations, and consequently, the acuteness or gravity of the notes?

Mrs. B. Yes. Among the variety of tones, there are some which, sounded together, please the ear, producing what we call harmony, or concord. This arises from the agreement of the vibrations of the two sonorous bodies; so that some of the vibrations of each, strike upon the ear at the same time. Thus, if the

34. How is a musical tone produced? 35. What occasions discords? 36. Upon what does the acuteness or gravity of a sound depend? 37. Does the force, with which a string is struck, affect the rapidity of its vibrations? 38. How are the strings made to produce the high and low notes? 39. What is meant by harmony, or concord, and how is it produced?

vibrations of two strings are performed in equal times, the same tone is produced by both, and they are said to be in unison.

Emily. Now, then, I understand why, when I tune my harp, in unison with the piano-forte, I draw the strings tighter, if it is too low, or loosen them, if it is too high a pitch: it is in order to bring them to vibrate, in equal times, with the strings of the piano-forte.

Mrs. B. But concord, you know, is not confined to unison; for two different tones, harmonize in a variety of cases. When the vibrations of one string (or other sonorous body) vibrate in double the time of another, the second vibration of the latter, will strike upon the ear, at the same instant, as the first vibration of the former; and this is the concord of an octave.

If the vibrations of two strings are as two to three, the second vibration of the first, corresponds with the third vibration of the latter, producing the harmony called, a fifth.

Caroline. So, then, when I strike the key-note with its fifth, I hear every second vibration of one, and every third of the other, at the same time?

Mrs. B. Yes; and the key-note, struck with the fourth, is likewise a concord, because the vibrations, are as three to four. The vibrations of a major third, with the key-note, are as four to five; and those of a minor third, as five to six.

There are other tones, which, though they cannot be struck together without producing discord, if struck successively, give us that succession of pleasing sounds, which is called melody. Harmony, you perceive, arises from the combined effect of two, or more concordant sounds, while melody, is the result of certain simple sounds, which succeed each other. Upon these general principles, the science of music is founded; but, I am not suffi ciently acquainted with it, to enter into it any further.

We shall now, therefore, take leave of the subject of sound; and, at our next interview, enter upon that of optics, in which we shall consider the nature of light, vision, and colours.

40. When are strings said to be in unison? 41. How are octaves produced? 42. How are fifths produced? 43. How major and minor thirds? 44. What is meant by melody, and in what particular does it differ from harmony?

CONVERSATION XIV.

ON OPTICS.

OF LUMINOUS, TRANSPARENT, AND OPAQUE BODIES.-OF THE RADIATION OF LIGHT.-OF SHADOWS.-OF THE REFLECTION OF LIGHT.-OPAQUE BODIES SEEN ONLY BY REFLECTED LIGHT.-VISION EXPLAINED.CAMERA OBSCURA.-IMAGE OF OBJECTS ON THE RETINA.

CAROLINE.

I LONG to begin our lesson to day, Mrs. B., for I expect that it will be very entertaining.

Mrs. B. Optics is that branch of philosophy, which treats of the nature and properties of light. It is certainly one of the most interesting branches of Natural Philosophy, but not one of the easiest to understand; I must, therefore, beg that you will give me your undivided attention.

I shall first inquire, whether you comprehend the meaning of a luminous body, an opaque body, and a transparent body.

Caroline. A luminous body is one that shines; an opaque.... Mrs. B. Do not proceed to the second, until we have agreed upon the definition of the first. All bodies that shine, are not luminous; for a luminous body is one that shines by its own light; as the sun, the fire, a candle, &c.

Emily. Polished metal then, when it shines with so much brilliancy, is not a luminous body?

Mrs. B. No, for it would be dark, if it did not receive light from a luminous body; it belongs, therefore, to the class of dark, as well as of opaque bodies, which comprehends all such as are neither luminous, nor will admit the light to pass through them. Emily. And transparent bodies, are those which admit the light to pass through them, such as glass and water.

Mrs. B. You are right. Transparent, or pellucid bodies, are frequently called mediums, because they allow the rays of light to pass through them; and the rays which pass through, are said to be transmitted by them.

Light, when emanated from the sun, or any other luminous

1. What is optics? 2. What is meant by a luminous body? 3. What is meant by a dark body, and what by an opaque body? 4. What are transpás rent bodies? 5. What is a medium?