years had elapsed since the seat of their empire was transferred to Bagdad, and Arabia, in consequence, had lost much of its importance. Many of the chiefs of the interior provinces became independent, and withdrew themselves from the civil jurisdiction of the caliph.

§ It is supposed, that the Saracens, had they acknowledged only one head, might have established and perpetuated an immense empire. But after the extension of their conquests, they were broken up into separate states. Egypt, Morocco, Spain, and India, had, at an early period, their own sovereigns, who, though they paid a religious respect to the caliph of Bagdad, awarded him no temporal submission. Divided among themselves, they were destined ere

long to fall.

36. The principal military expedition of the African Saracens in this period, was the invasion of Sicily, and the projected conquest of Italy. They actually laid siege to Rome, which was strenuously defended by Pope Leo IV. They were entirely repulsed, having their ships dispersed by a storm, and their army cut to pieces, 848.

37. The house of Abbas, which now enjoyed the caliphate, furnished twenty-two caliphs during this period. These reigned in succession, and Bagdad continued to be the seat of their power. In the year 1055, however, Bagdad was taken by the Turks, and the caliphs, from that time, instead of being temporal monarchs, became only the supreme pontiffs of the Mahometan faith.

At the time of the first crusade, in the beginning of the next period, Arabia was governed by a Turkish sultan, as were Persia, and the greater portion of lesser Asia.

§ We can notice only one or two of the caliphs of Bagdad. Adadodawla was deemed a great prince. He was magnanimous, liberal, prudent, and learned; but he was also insatiably ambitious. A remark which he made when at the point of death, is a melancholy comment on human greatness. With a faultering tongue, he cried, "What have all my riches and prosperity availed me? My power and authority are now at an end."

Mahmud Gazni, was a famous conqueror. He invaded and conquered a part of India. The following striking anecdote is related of him by historians. A poor man, who had complained to him that one of his soldiers had driven himself and family out of his house in the night, was told to inform the prince if that occurrence should take place again. The poor man had occasion to inform the prince, who went to the house, and causing the lights to be extinguished, cut the intruder in pieces. The prince then commanded the flambeaux to be lighted, and after closely inspecting the corpse,

offered thanks to God, and asked for some refreshment. This being afforded, he ate heartily of the mean fare.

Being interrogated by his host respecting the reason of his conduct, he replied, "Ever since your complaint, my mind has been harassed with the thought, that none but one of my own sons would commit such an act of audacity. I had resolved to show him no lenity, and commanded the lights to be put out, that the sight of him might not affect me; but on seeing that the criminal was not my son. I returned thanks to the Almighty."

Distinguished Characters in Period V.

1. Charlemagne, a successful warrior and able sovereign 2. Photius, a learned Christian writer and philosopher. 3. Erigena, a Scotch philosopher and learned divine. 4. Alfred, a wise, learned, and virtuous prince.

5. Al Razi, an eminent Arabian scholar, and physician. 6. Avicenna, an Arabian philosopher and physician. 7. Suidas, a Greek lexicographer.

§ 1. Charlemagne, of whom some account has already been given, was king of France, by succession, and emperor of the west, by conquest, in 800. He laid the foundation of the dynasty of the Western Franks. Though his empire did not hold together, long after his death, his successors in the several states of which it had been composed, reigned several centuries, in the line of the Franks. Indeed, this was the case, till the house of Austria was founded.

Charlemagne was in many respects an admirable sovereign. He excelled in war; and although he was so illiterate that he could not spell his name, he was great in the cabinet, and patronised learning. He invited into France, literary and scientific men from Italy, and from the Britannic Isles. The latter, in those dark ages, preserved more of the light of learning, than any of the western kingdoms.

His private character has been much eulogized, though it is acknowledged that he was sometimes rigid and cruel. He was simple in his manners and dress, and opposed to parade and luxury. Economy, industry, and plainness, characterised him in a domestic state His daughters were assiduously employed in spinning and housewifery, and his sons were trained by himself in all manly exercises Except when he held his general assemblies, his dress, table and attendants were like those of a private person.

He was a man of almost incredible activity. Instead of confiding in the reports of others, he personally saw that his orders were executed. The condition of his subjects was constantly in his view. In one place, he ordered the repairs of a highway; in another, the construction of a bridge; and in another, he afforded the necessary aid to agriculture and commerce. Each of the provinces partook

in its turn of his benefits.

Charlemagne founded several seminaries of learning; but the

darkness of the times could scarcely be alleviated by all his efforts. He suppressed mendicity, and established a fixed and invariable price for corn. The meanest of his subjects were thus enabled to provide against their wants, and all complaints on this head were banished. After rearing a splendid empire, he departed this life at the age of seventy-one years.

2. Photius was patriarch of Constantinople in the ninth century, and the greatest man of the age in which he lived. He possessed the patriarchate only ten years, during which, he was exposed to a most turbulent opposition and cabal. He was at last deposed, and died in a monastery. He deserves a high rank in point of erudition. He was the author of a commentary on the ancient writers, a collection of the canons of the church, epistles, &c. These are yet valuable on several accounts. In commenting on the scriptures, although he followed reason, rather than authority, he is not on the whole a model fit to be taken. He explained with ability the categories of Aristotle. He died in 886.

3. Erigena, John Scotus, was born at Ayr, in Scotland, according to some authorities, and was very learned, in a very barbarous age. He was employed by king Alfred to promote learning and the liberal arts. For this purpose he was appointed to preside at Oxford, over the studies of geometry and astronomy in particular. He spent three years in this situation; but some disputes and disturbances arising at Oxford, he left that place and retired to a monastery at Malmsbury. There he opened a school, but his harshness and severity to his scholars so provoked them, that they stabbed him with the iron bodkins they then wrote with, in such a manner, that he died, 883. Mosheim speaks of Erigena as an eminent philosopher and learned divine, and as manifesting uncommon sagacity and genius. He wrote a book on Predestination, and translated into Latin four pieces of Dionysius, the Areopagite, and was the author of some other works.

4. Alfred, so justly surnamed the Great, was born in 849, as is supposed, at Wantage, in Berkshire. He succeeded to the crown on the death of his brother Ethelred in 871; but he had scarcely time to attend to the funeral of his brother, before he was obliged to fight for his kingdom and life, with the piratical Danes. His military exploits, with several other things, have been above related. The particulars which may with propriety be added, are the following.

Alfred was both a wise and a pious prince. His qualities were most happily blended together, so that no one encroached on another. He reconciled a most diligent attention to business, with the purest and warmest devotion-the severest justice with the most exemplary lenity—the brightest capacity and inclination for science with the most shining talents for action. He was equally a warrior and a legislator. He united with rich mental endowments, every personal grace and accomplishment.

The darkness and superstitions of the age, were too powerful for his efforts and institutions. He could not expel them to any great

extent. Yet he did considerable to elevate the character of his countrymen, and he aimed at much more. In addition to the schools and seminaries of learning which he founded, he afforded the attractive influence of his own example.

His time he usually divided into three equal portions-one was employed in exercise or the refection of the body-another in the despatch of business-and a third in study and devotion. He conveyed his instructions to the people in parables, stories, &c. couched in poetry; as he considered these best adapted to their capacity. He translated the Fables of Æsop, the histories of Orosius and Beda, and Boethius on the Consolation of Philosophy. In these various literary engagements, he sought the good of his people, as well as his own personal, intellectual improvement.

5. Al Razi, a name not perhaps well known in European literature, was famous in the Arabian annals; and the Arabians at this era were the most enlightened of the nations. This person is said to have been extremely well versed in all kinds of ancient learning though he excelled most in physic, and is styled the Phoenix of the age. He applied himself to the study of philosophy with such success, that he made a wonderful progress in every branch of it, and composed a great number of books upon physical and philosophical subjects. He composed 12 books on alchemy, in which he asserted the possibility of a transmutation of metals, and was the first writer on the small-pox.

He is said to have contracted webs in his eyes by the immoderate cating of beans; and towards the close of his life, lost both of them by cataracts. He would not permit an occulist, who came to couch him, to perform the operation, because he could not tell of how many little coats the eye consisted; saying at the same time, that he was not very desirous of recovering his sight, as he had already seen enough of the world to make him abhor it. He died about the year 935.

6. Avicenna, who is much celebrated among his countrymen, the Mahometans, was born in the year 980, and died in 1036. The number of his books, including his smaller tracts, is computed at near one hundred, the majority of which are either lost, or unknown in Europe. At the age of ten years, he had made great progress in classical literature. It is said that he read over Aristotle's metaphysics 40 times, got it by heart, but could not understand it. Acciden tally meeting with a book which treated of the objects of metaphysics, he perceived what Aristotle meant, and out of joy at the discovery, gave alms to the poor.

7. Suidas flourished between 975 and 1025. His native country is not known. He is the author of a very useful Greek Lexicon The work contains much historical and geographical information. No particulars seem to have been recorded respecting his life, either by himself or by others. He is known only by his book.

PERIOD VI.

The period of the Crusades; extending from the First Crusade, 1095 years A. C., to the founding of the Turkish Empire, 1299 years A. C.

During this period, we have manifold proofs of the darkness of the times, with a singular mixture of a spirit of adventure, and lofty daring. The age was peculiarly characterised by the crusades, the passion for pilgrimages, the exploits of chivalry, and the production of romances. Barbarism and turbulence extensively prevailed, while the lights of science were few and dim. In England, however, there was the early dawn of literature.

THE CRUSADES.

SECT. 1. In giving an account of the CRUSADES, we include a portion of the history of the principal European nations. For this reason, less of the separate history of those nations will appear during this period, than would otherwise be introduced. The Crusades were common to all Christendom, and all felt a deep interest in them. The other peculiarities of the times, as pilgrimages, chivalry, the feudal system, &c. since they belonged to the established customs and institutions of Europe, will be unfolded in the General Views. In the Crusades, the political and military history of a great part of the world is carried on for a long time.

2. The Crusades were wars undertaken principally during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, by the Christian nations of Europe, on account of religion. They were termed Crusades, from the cross which was the badge of the combatants. The object of these wars was the deliverance of Palestine, and particularly the tomb of Jesus Christ from the dominion of the Turks or Mahometans.

The Turks, or Turcomans, a race of Tartars, having, in 1055, taken Bagdad, and thus overturned the empire of the caliphs, came into the possession of the countries which these caliphs had governed, and the caliphs themselves, instead of temporal monarchs, became sovereign pontiffs of the Mahometan faith. Palestine, and particularly Jerusalem, were of course under the sway of the Turks, and the seat of their religion.