the liberation-wars. From the spirit of Illuminism, which waged war with all that had been handed down, Austria and Prussia had reaped destruction; but by going back to the moral spirit of the fathers, they had conquered. Everywhere a sense for the past times of Germany manifested itself. With a wonderful enthusiasm, the three hundredth anniversary of the Reformation was celebrated, in 1817. It is true, that it was rather the German man, than the man of justification by faith, who was celebrated; but in the liberation-wars, they had got a deeper understanding of that leader in the spiritual liberation-war. Notwithstanding all this want of clearness, a fresh breeze blows in the Reformations - Almanach, to which the greatest theologians gave contributions. Marheineke's History of the Reformation, and Spieker's Life of Luther (which, it is to be regretted, remained unfinished), are pervaded by a truly patriotic and earnestly historical spirit. And what a literature on the History of the Reformation has grown up since that time! Romanticism had already opened up the way for an understanding of the middle ages. At the instigation of Stein, the great collection of monuments of the history of Germany (Monumenta Germaniae) arose. Following in the path of the brothers Grimm, the most distinguished men devoted themselves to the exploring of the German language, mythology, tales and traditions, customs, legal conditions, etc. The old German architecture, painting, and poetry became the subjects of the closest study. The history of Germany was treated in works comprehending the whole of it (one need only think of Luden), and in great monographs (one need only think of Raumer's Hohenstaufen). Even for hierarchy, mysticism, scholasticism, a lively historical interest was awakened. In jurisprudence, German law was most assiduously culti

vated since the liberation-wars; and the greatest men collected around Savigny, the representative of the historical law school. This historical spirit entered even into spheres which stood in a traditional opposition to Romanticism-into philological studies, as is proved by two of their most important representatives, Passow and Lachmann. This historical tendency was, however, not limited to the domain of science only. Return to the old monarchical institutions, to the old ecclesiasticism, to the old feudal glory (Restoration), was the thought which animated the Bourbons in France and Spain, And to these endeavours Haller lent his Restoration of Political Economy, Chateaubriand his Romanticism. In opposition to the demagogical movements which, in Germany, entered into a union with the patriotic historical sense, the policy of the Eastern powers too assumed more and more the character of Restoration (Verona). The revolution in July 1830, however, and its consequences, were able to break only a violent restoration of the old, not a healthy return to the spirit of the fathers.

Lastly, a new religious life awoke in the princes as well as in the nations, since the liberation-wars. It is equally difficult to judge of the character of Emperor Francis of Austria as of that of his father, who, as is well known, when Grand-Duke of Tuscany, stood at the head of Illuminism, but when Emperor, decidedly left the path of Emperor Joseph. Between the image of a popular simplicity which lives among the people, and that of a thoroughly calculating suspicious little soul, which others have given, a middle view seems to be the right one.1 Frederick William, king of Prussia, walked at first in the steps of Frederick II. In a corrupted court, he preserved

'I think of such a view as Pertz has given in the Life of Stein.

simplicity, plainness, and humility. In his relation to Christianity, he did not deny Sack's school. But God took him into a school of severe trials. After the misfortunes of 1806, his heart was opened to a deeper knowledge of salvation, especially by the assistance of the venerable Borowsky. Even before the liberation-wars, he seriously meditated the re-organization of the Church. And when the Lord had so wonderfully raised him from his deep humiliation, his life of faith too joyfully soared upwards. On the susceptible, chivalrous soul of Alexander of Russia, the earnestness of the times made a powerful impression. The idea of a Christian union of the nations awoke in his soul. Notwithstanding the differences of creed, the people of Europe should, like members of one family, give their hands to one another, in the faith of Jesus Christ, the Lord of the Church, as the gospel proclaims Him to be. This grand idea was, to the English, too impractical, to the Pope, too unchristian. The Holy Alliance, it is true, remained only in the realm of thought; but it is, at all events, a sign of the renewed religious life in the princes. In the people, the renewed life had, as yet, a very general character, or rather the general religiousness assumed a character more full of life. The youth did homage to the God, "Who great and wonderful, after a night of long disgrace, to us revealed himself in flames; who broke with his lightenings the insolence of our enemies; who graciously renewed our strength; and dwells and reigns above the stars, from eternity to eternity."

On the anniversary of the Reformation in 1817, Claus Harms, archdeacon in Kiel, an original man from among the people, who, through Schleiermacher's school, had returned to belief; thought himself called upon to add to the ninety-five Theses of Luther, ninety-five new ones,

which set Luther's faith before the age rejoicing in Luther. The following are some of them :-III. With the idea of a progressing Reformation, in the manner in which this idea is at present understood, and especially in the manner in which we are reminded of it, Lutheranism will be reformed back into heathenism, and Christianity out of the world. IX. In matters of faith, Reason, and as regards the life, Conscience, may be called the Popes of our age. XI. Conscience cannot pardon sins. XXI. In the sixteenth century, the pardon of sins cost money after all; in the nineteenth, it may be had without money, for people help themselves to it. XXIV. In an old hymn-book it was said, "Two places, O man, thou hast before thee;" but in modern times they have slain the devil, and dammed up hell. XXXII. The so-called religion of reason is destitute either of reason or religion, or both. XLVII. If, in matters of religion, reason claims to be more than a layman, it becomes a heretic; that avoid. Tit. iii. 10. LXIV. Christians should be taught that they have the right not to tolerate any un-Christian and un-Lutheran doctrine, in the pulpits, hymn-books, and school-books. LXVII. It is a strange claim that it must be permitted to teach a new faith from a chair which the old faith had set up, and from a mouth to which the old faith gives food. LXXI. Reason turned mad goes about in the Lutheran Church: it tears Christianity from the altar, casts God's words out of the pulpit, throws dirt into the baptismal water, receives all kinds of people as god fathers, hisses the priests; and all the people follow its example, and have done so for a long time. And yet it is not bound. On the contrary, this is thought to be the genuine doctrine of Luther, and not of Carlstadt. LXXIV. The assertion that we are more advanced and enlightened can surely not be proved by

the present ignorance as regards true Christianity. Many thousands can declare, as did once the disciples of John (Acts xix. 2), 'We have not so much as heard whether there be any Holy Ghost.' LXXV. Like a poor maid, they would now enrich the Lutheran Church by a marriage. Do not perform it over Luther's bones! He will thereby be recalled to life, and then-woe to you. LXXVII. To say that time has taken away the wall of separation between Lutherans and Reformed, is not a clear speech. LXXXII. Just as reason has prevented the Reformed from finishing their Church, and reducing it to unity, so the reception of reason into the Lutheran Church would cause nothing but confusion and destruction. XCII. The Evangelical Catholic Church is a glorious Church; she holds and forms herself pre-eminently by the Sacrament. XCIII. The Evangelical Reformed Church is a glorious Church; she holds and forms herself pre-eminently by the Word of God. XCIV. More glorious than either is the Evangelical Lutheran Church; she holds and forms herself both by the Sacrament and the Word of God."

These Theses gave rise to a powerful agitation. There appeared upwards of 200 controversial writings, chiefly directed against Harms. It was evident that the food was still too strong for the time; but, on the other hand, this movement showed also that religious interests had again become a power. It was in vain that the old Humanism in Halle sang,-" Strew roses on the way, and forget Harms. "1 Harms' testimony did not return void.

A play upon the word Harm, which cannot be translated. Harm, as an appellative, means sorrow, grief, sadness," and the genitive of it, which is required by the construction (Harms), differs very slightly only in the orthography from the genitive of the proper name (Harms'). They are words from a popular

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