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Augustine.

distance from the river, in a series of terraces. The state house and county courthouse are built of granite; the former stands on an elevation, and is surrounded by attractive grounds. The city park, of 2 acres, contains a soldiers' monument. The U. S. arsenal and state asylum for the insane are situated on the e. side. At Togus, 4 m. from A., is a soldiers' home. There are 9 cemeteries, of which Mt. Pleasant and Mt. Vernon, on Winthrop hill, are the largest. By means of a dam 17 ft. high and 584 ft. long above the city, and a canal, abundant water power is furnished for manufactures. Lumber and cotton goods are extensively produced. There are 8 national banks; cap. $450,000; 2 savings banks. There are 9 churches. The children enrolled in pub. schools, Mch. 1886-87, were 1615; total expenses for schools, $24,705.75. A. has a high and a grammar school, St. Catherine's school for girls, and a free library. Of 26 newspapers, etc., published, 5 are weekly, 19 monthly. A. is governed by a mayor and 7 aldermen. The municipal court has jurisdiction over nearly all the towns in the co. City receipts, 1887, $153,574.45; expenses, $153,157.63; bonded debt, $285,500; assessed val. property, $4,708,932. Pop. 1762, 30; 1798, 1140; 1820, 2451; 1880, 8665; 1887, est. 11,000.

AUGUSTA, JOHN, 1500-75; a Bohemian theologian. He studied at Würtemberg under Luther and Melanchthon, though he did not adopt all of the former's views. He was a minister among the Bohemian brethren, and subsequently the bishop of the sect. After the Schmalkald war, all the sect were banished, and A. and other leaders arrested. He was offered freedom if he would make public recantation, but this he declined to do. In 1564 he was liberated, pledging himself not to teach or preach. He wrote an Outline of the Doctrines of the Bohemian Brethren, and two other religious works.

AUGUSTA, MARIA LOUISA CATHERINE, born Sept. 30, 1811; queen of Prussia and empress of Germany, daughter of Charles Frederick, grand duke of Saxe Weimar, by a daughter of Paul I. of Russia. She was brought up at the court of her grandfather, Charles Augustus, where she was intimate with Goethe. Her oldest sister married Charles, prince of Prussia, and she married his brother William, June 11, 1829. She personally superintended the education of her children, the late emperor Frederick William and Louise, grand-duchess of Baden. She is admired for her culture and beloved

for her benevolence.

AUGUSTA HISTORIA, or AUGUSTAN HISTORY, the title of a collection of biographies of Roman emperors from Hadrian to Carinus. The memoirs are important for matters of fact, but the literary character is poor. The first edition was printed as early as 1475, at Milan. There is no English translation.

AUGUSTAN AGE, the literary period of Rome, which was at its height in the reign of Augustus, during which such writers as Ovid, Horace, Cicero, Virgil, and Catullus flourished, with patrons of literature like Mæcenas. At that age the language was in its perfection, and men of letters were held in high honor. The English A. A. was the period of Addison, Swift, Steele, and their compeers. In France such a period is assigned to the latter part of the reign of Louis XIV.

AUGUSTENBURG, a village of 800 inhabitants in the centre of the island of Alsen. It is noted for being the residence of the duke of Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg, for its splendid stables," and for the castle belonging to the ducal family.

AUGUSTI, JOHANN CHRISTIAN WILHELM, 1772-1841; b. near Gotha; a learned German theologian. He studied at Jena, successively filled the chairs of philosophy and of oriental languages, and in 1812 accepted a theological professorship in Breslau. In 1819 he was transferred to Bonn. Early a decided rationalist, he subsequently returned to orthodox Lutheranism. His most important work is his Manual of Christian Archæology (Leip., 1836–37).

AUGUSTINE, AURELIUS ST. (AURELIUS AUGUSTINUS), the greatest of the Latin fathers, was b. at Tagaste, a t. of Numidia, on the 13th of Nov., 354 A.D. His father, Patricius, was poor, but of good family, and filled the office of magistrate. He continued a pagan till advanced in years, and was only baptized shortly before his death. Ambitious that his son should become a fine scholar, he sent him to school at Madaura, and subsequently to Carthage. Augustine's mother, Monnica, a gentle and pious woman, had given him a careful religious education, but the temptations of Carthage were too strong for the ardent and excitable student. He fell into vices, and before he had reached his 18th year his mistress bore him a son, Adeodatus. A passage in Cicero's Hortensius, treating of the worth and dignity of philosophy, first stirred A.'s deeper being into life. In his desire to obtain clear knowledge of things human and divine, he joined the Manichæan sect. Returning to Tagaste, he lectured for a time on literature, then went to Carthage, where he wrote, in his 27th year, his first work, De Apto et Pulchro-a treatise on æsthetics. His spiritual insight becoming keener, he gave up Manichæism in disgust.

In 383 he went to Rome, followed by the tears, the prayers, and the anxieties of his excellent mother, who was not, however, bereaved of hope, for both her faith and her love were strong. After a short stay, A. left Rome, and proceeded to Milan, where he became a teacher of rhetoric. No change could have been more fortunate. At this time, the bishop of Milan was the eloquent and devout St. Ambrose. An intimacy sprang up between the two, and A. often went to hear his friend preach. He was not, however, as yet a Christian. He had only emerged, as it were, from Manichæism

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the region of night-clouds and shadows-and was now gazing on the gray dawn of the Platonic philosophy, prophetic of the noontide splendors of Christianity which were soon to burst upon his vision. Still, A. did not afterward despise this preliminary training; he was too great and honest a man for that. He confesses that the Platonic writings enkindled in his mind an incredible ardor;" they awakened his deeper spiritual nature, which keenly upbraided him with his sins. Once more he studied the Bible, although from a purely Platonic point of view, and rather wishing to find in it "those truths which he had already made himself acquainted with from the Platonic philosophy, but presented in a different form." He began to think that Christ and Paul, by their glorious life and death, their divine morality, their great holiness, and manifold virtues, must have enjoyed much of that "highest wisdom" which the philosophers thought confined to themselves. For some time he clung to his Platonic Christianity, and shaped the doctrines of the Bible according to it; but when he found that it was weak to overcome temptations, and that "he himself was continually borne down by the ungodly impulses which he thought he had already subdued," the necessity of a living personal God and Saviour to rescue him from the condemnation of his own conscience, and impart a sanctifying vitality to the abstract truths which he worshipped, shone clear through all the stormy struggles of his heart. In the eighth and ninth books of his Confessions, he has left a noble, though painful picture of his inward life during this momentous crisis. It is sufficient to say that the spirit of God triumphed. On the 25th of April, 387 A.D., A. along with his natural son, Adeodatus, of whom he seems to have been justly fond, was baptized by Ambrose at Milan. Shortly after, he set out on his return home. At Ostia, on the Tiber, his beloved mother, who had followed him to Milan, died; her eyes had seen the salvation of her son, and she could depart in peace. After her death, and before leaving Italy for Africa, A. wrote his treatises, De Moribus Ecclesia Catholicæ et de Moribus Manichæorum; De Quantitate Anima; and De Libero Arbitrio. It is unnecessary to relate at any length the subsequent life of Augustine. His character and principles of action had become fixed, and he now brought the whole majesty of his intellect to bear upon the side of Christianity. Having, as was then customary for converts, divided his goods among the poor, he retired into private life, and composed several treatises-De Genesi Contra Manichæos, De Musica, De Magistro, and De Vera Religione, which secured him a high reputation. In 391, he was ordained a priest by Valerius, bishop of Hippo; and during the next four years, though earnestly engaged in the work of preaching, contrived to write three different works. In 395, he was made colleague of Valerius. Then ensued a period of hot strife, known in church history as the Donatist and Pelagian controversies. A., as may naturally be supposed, having passed through so fierce a fire of personal experience on religious questions, would be very jealous both of what he knew to be the truth, and of what he only thought to be the truth. This, added to his acute and profound intellect, made him, in spite of the poverty of his historical erudition, a most formidable and relentless antagonist. But this portion of his career will fall to be treated more properly under Pelagius and Pelagianism (q.v.). In 397, appeared his Confessions, in 13 books. It is a deep, earnest, and sacred autobiography of one of the greatest intellects the world has seen. Passages of it have no parallel except in the Psalms of David. In 413, he commenced his De Civitate Dei, and finished it in 426. It is generally considered his most powerful work. Exception may be taken to much that it contains. The learning is no doubt very considerable, but it is not accurate. A. was an indifferent scholar: he had studied the Latin authors well; but of Greek "he knew little, and of Hebrew, nothing." Many of his reasonings are based on false and untenable premises, and he erred often in his etymological explanations; but in spite of these and other drawbacks, the final impression left on the mind is, that the work is one of the most profound and lasting monuments of human genius. In 428, A. published his Retractationes, in which he makes a recension of all his previous writings. It is a work of great candor. He frankly acknowledges such errors and mistakes as he had discovered himself to have committed, explains and modifies numerous statements, and mod estly reviews his whole opinions. His end was now drawing nigh. In 429, the Vandals, under the barbarian Genseric, landed in Africa; next year they besieged Hippo. A., now in his 76th year, prayed that God would help his unhappy church, and grant himself a release out of this present evil world. He d. on the 28th of Aug., 430, in the third month of the siege.

No mind has exerted greater influence on the church than that of Augustine. Consistency of theological opinion is not to be looked for from him, nor from any of the church fathers. A larger sphere of freedom was permitted to religious speculation in those unfettered days, before creeds were encircled with that traditional sanctity they now possess. Nevertheless, we have little difficulty in determining the central tenets of his theological belief. He held the corruption of human nature through the fall of man, and the consequent slavery of the human will. Both on metaphysical and religious grounds, he asserted the doctrine of predestination, from which he necessarily deduced the corollary doctrines of election and reprobation; and finally, he strenuously supported, against the Pelagians, not only these opinions, but also the doctrine of the perseverance of the saints. At the same time, it is but fair to add that, even on such points, his language is far from uniform; that much of the severity of his doctrines arose from the

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bitter and painful remembrance of his own early sins, and from the profound impres sion which the corrupt state of society in his time, and the vast desolations of barbarism, had made on his earnest and susceptible soul; and that, in his desire to give glory to God, he sometimes forgot to be just to man. In illustration of this may be mentioned the fact (see Neander, Mosheim, and Waddington's church histories) that the maxim which justified the chastisement of religious errors by civil penalties, even to burning, was established and confirmed by the authority of A., and thus transmitted to following ages. In his epistle to Dulcitius, a civil magistrate, who shrank from putting in force the edict of Honorius against heretics, he uses these words: "It is much better that some should perish by their own fires, than that the whole body should burn in the everlasting flames of Gehenna, through the desert of their impious dissension." In the opinion of Neander, it was to the somewhat narrow culture and the peculiar personal experience and temperament of Augustine, that the doctrines of absolute predestination and irresistible grace, first systematized by him, owed much of that harshness and onesidedness which so long obstructed their general reception by the church, and which continue to render them repulsive to multitudes.

His life has been written by Tillemont, and his entire works have been repeatedly edited. The Benedictine edition, published at Paris in 11 vols. (1679-1700), is the best. Numerous editions of the Confessiones and De Civitate Dei have appeared; the most recent of the latter by Marcus Dods, D.D. In the "Library of Fathers of the Holy Catholic Church," are translations into English of A.'s Confessions, Exposition on St. John's Gospel and on the Psalms, Sermons on the New Testament, and Short Treatises. His Sermon on the Mount is translated by Trench, and his Letters by Rev. J. G. Cunningham.

AUGUSTINE, SAINT, first archbishop of Canterbury, was originally a monk in the convent of St. Andrew at Rome. In 596, he was sent, along with forty other monks, by pope Gregory I., to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity, and establish the authority of the Roman see in Britain. The missionaries were kindly received by Ethelbert, king of Kent, whose wife Bertha, daughter of the king of the Parisians, was a Christian, and retained a Frankish bishop in her suite as chaplain. A residence was assigned to them at Canterbury, then called Durovernum, where they devoted themselves to monastic exercises and preaching. The conversion and baptism of the king contributed greatly to the success of their efforts among his subjects, and it is recorded that in one day A. baptized 10,000 persons in the river Swale. Nominal as much of this conversion must have been, there is abundant testimony to the fact that a marked improvement in the life and manners of the Anglo-Saxons followed the evangelistic labors of A. and his companions.

In 597, he went to Arles, by direction of the pope, and was there consecrated archbishop of Canterbury and metropolitan of England, On his return, he dispatched a presbyter and monk to Rome, to inform the pope of his success, and obtain instruction on certain questions. Gregory's advices with regard to the propagation of the faith are admirable examples of that pious ingenuity which has often characterized the missionary policy of the church of Rome. Thus, instead of destroying the heathen temples, A. was recommended to convert them into Christian churches, by washing the walls with holy water, erecting altars, and substituting holy relics and symbols for the images of the heathen gods. A.'s subsequent efforts to establish his authority over the native British church were not so successful as his missionary labors. He d. in 604, and was buried in the church-yard of the monastery bearing his name, founded by king Ethelbert. His body was removed to the cathedral of Canterbury in 1091. Bede's Historia Ecclesi astica Gentis Anglorum is the great authority for the life of St. A. A thoughtful and pleasing sketch of it will be found in the Rev. Arthur P. Stanley's Historical Memorials of Canterbury, Lond., 1855.

The site and remains of St. A.'s monastery were purchased in 1844 by Mr. Beresford Hope, by whom they were presented to the archbishop of Canterbury in trust, for the erection of a missionary college in connection with the church of England. This institution was incorporated by royal charter in 1848. The buildings, in which as much of the ancient structure as possible has been preserved, contain accommodation for about 45 students, whose course of study extends over three years. Twenty exhibitions have been founded in connection with the college.

AUGUSTINES, or AUGUSTIN'IANS, names given to several religious bodies in the Roman Catholic church. Whether St. Augustine ever framed any formal rule of monastic life, is uncertain; but one was deduced from his writings, and was adopted by as many as 30 monastic fraternities, of which the chief were the Canons Regular, the Knights Templars (q.v.), the Begging Hermits, the Friars Preachers or Dominicans (q.v.), and the Premonstratensians (q.v.). The CANONS REGULAR OF ST. AUGUSTINE, or AUSTIN CANONS, appear to have been founded or remodeled about the middle of the 11th century. Their discipline was less severe than that of monks properly so called, but more rigid than that of the secular or parochial clergy. They lived under one roof, having a common dormitory and refectory. Their habit was a long cassock, with a white rochet over it, ali covered by a black cloak or hood, whence they were often called Black Canons. In England, where they were established early in the 12th c., they had about 170 houses, the earliest, it would seem, being at Nostell, near Pontefract, in Yorkshire. In Scotland

they had about 25 houses: the earliest, at Scone, was founded in 1114, and filled by canons from Nestell; the others of most note were at Inchcolm in the firth of Forth, St. Andrews, Holyrood, Cambuskenneth, and Inchaffray.

The BEGGING HERMITS, HERMITS OF ST. AUGUSTINE, or AUSTIN FRIARS, were a much more austere order, renouncing all property, and vowing to live by the voluntary alms of the faithful. They are believed to have sprung from certain societies of recluses who, in the 11th and 12th centuries, existed especially in Italy without any regulative constitution. At the instigation, as is alleged, of the rival fraternities of Dominicans and Franciscans, pope Innocent IV., about the middle of the 13th c., imposed on them the rule of St. Augustine, whom they claimed as their founder. In 1256, pope Alexander IV. placed them under the control of a superior or president called a "general." In 1287, a code of rules or constitutions was compiled, by which the order long continued to be governed. About 1570, friar Thomas of Jesus, a Portuguese brother of the order, introduced a more austere rule, the disciples of which were forbidden to wear shoes, whence they were called discalceati, or "barefooted friars." See illus., PRIESTS, MONKS AND NUNS, Vol. XII., p. 150, fig. 20.

The degeneracy of the order in the 14th c., called into existence new or reformed Augustinian societies, among which was that Saxon one to which Luther belonged. But in his day, even these had fallen victims to the general corruption of the priesthood, and he inflicted serious injury upon it by his unsparing denunciations. After the French revolution, the order was wholly suppressed in France, Spain, and Portugal, and partly in Italy and southern Germany. It was diminished even in Austria and Naples. It is most powerful in Sardinia and America.

The name of A. was given also to an order of nuns who claimed descent from a convent founded by St. Augustine at Hippo, and of which his sister was the first abbess. They were vowed to the care of the sick and the service of hospitals. The Hôtel-Diev at Paris is still served by them.

AUGUSTO WO, a t. of Poland, the capital of a circle of the same name, on the Netta a feeder of the Bug, 138 m. n.e. from Warsaw. It was founded by Sigismund Augustus king of Poland, in 1557. It has woolen and linen manufactures, and some trade in horses and cattle. Pop. 1879, 11,900.

AUGUS TULUS, ROMULUS, the last emperor of the western portion of the Romar empire. His name was Augustus, but the diminutive title under which he is universally known was given him by the Romans on account of the essential littleness of his char acter. He was the son of Orestes, a Pannonian of birth and wealth, who rose to high rank under the emperor Julius Nepos, whose favor he repaid by stirring up the barbarian troops in the pay of Rome to mutiny against him. On the flight of the emperor, Orestes conferred the vacant throne on his son A. (476 A.D.), retaining all substantial power in his own hands. Orestes, failing to conciliate the barbarians, who had helped him against Nepos, with a grant of the third of the lands of Italy, they, under the com. mand of Odoacer, besieged him in Pavia, and capturing, put him to death. A. yielded at once, and being of too little consequence to be put to death, he was dismissed to a villa near Naples with an annual pension of 6000 pieces of gold. His after-fate is

unknown.

AUGUSTUS, CAIUS JULIUS CÆSAR OCTAVIANUS, the son of Octavius and Atia (daughter of Julia, the younger sister of Julius Cæsar), was b. 23d Sept., B.C. 63. The Octavian family came originally from Velitræ, in the country of the Volsci; and the branch from which A. descended was rich and honorable. His father had risen to the rank of senator and prætor, but died in the prime of life, when A. was only 4 years old. A. was carefully educated in Rome under the guardianship of his mother and his step-father, Lucius Marcius Philippus. At the age of 12, A. delivered a funeral oration over his grandmother; at 16, he received the toga virilis. The talents of the youth recommended him to his grand-uncle, Julius Cæsar, who adopted A. as his son and heir. At the time of Cæsar's assassination (Mar. 15, B.C. 44), A. was a student under the celebrated orator Apollodorus, at Apollonia in Illyricum, where, however, he had been sent, chiefly with a view to gain practical instruction in military affairs. He returned to Italy, assuming the name of Julius Cæsar Octavianus, and at his landing at Brundusium, was welcomed by deputies from the veterans there assembled; but declining their offers, he chose to enter Rome privately. The city was at this time divided between the two parties of the republicans and the friends of Mark Antony; but the latter had, by adroit maneuvers, gained the ascendency, and enjoyed almost absolute power. A. was at first haughtily treated by the consul, who refused to surrender the property of Cæsar. After some fighting, in which Antony was worsted, and had to flee across the Alps, A., who had made himself a favorite with the people and the army, succeeded in getting the will of Julius Cæsar carried out. He found an able friend and advocate in Cicero, who had at first regarded him with contempt. The great orator, while imagining that he was laboring in behalf of the republic, was in fact only an instrument for raising A. to supreme power. When Antony returned from Gaul with Lepidus, A. joined them in establishing a triumvirate. He obtained Africa, Sardinia, and Sicily; Antony, Gaul; and Lepidus, Spain. Their power was soon made absolute by the massacre of those unfriendly to them in Italy, and by victories over the republican army in Macedonia, commanded by

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Brutus and Cassius. After the battle of Philippi, won by A. and Antony, of which the former unjustly claimed all the credit, whereas it mainly belonged to the latter, the triumvirs made a new division of the provinces-A. obtaining Italy, and Lepidus, Africa. The Perusian war, excited by Fulvia, wife of Antony, seemed likely to lead to a contest between A. and his rival; but was ended by the death of Fulvia, and the subsequent marriage of Antony with Octavia, sister of Augustus. Shortly afterwards, the claims of Sextus Pompeius and Lepidus having been settled by force and fraud, the Roman world was divided between A. and Antony; and a contest for supremacy commenced between them. While Antony was lost in luxurious dissipation at the court of Cleopatra, A. was industriously striving to gain the love and confidence of the Roman people, and to damage his rival in public estimation. At length war was declared against the queen of Egypt, and at the naval battle of Actium (q.v.), B.c. 31, A. was victorious, and became sole ruler of the whole Roman world. Soon afterwards, Antony and Cleopatra ended their lives by suicide. The son of Antony by Fulvia, and Cæsarion, son of Cæsar and Cleopatra, were put to death; and in B.C. 29, after dispos ing of several affairs in Egypt, Greece, Syria, and Asia Minor, A. returned to Rome in triumph, and closing the tempie of Janus, proclaimed universal peace.

His subsequent measures were mild and prudent. To insure popular favor, he abolished the laws of the triumvirate, adorned the city of Rome, and reformed many abuses. At the end of his seventh consulship (B.C. 27), he proposed to retire from office, in order that the old republican form of government might be re-established, but he was ultimately induced to retain his power. Hitherto, since Cæsar's death, the consul had been named Octavian; but now the title of Augustus (meaning "sacred" or " consecrated") was conferred on him. In the eleventh consulship of A. (B.c. 23), the tribunitian power was conferred on him for life by the senate. Republican names and forms still remained, but they were mere shadows. A. was in all but name absolute monarch. In 12 B.C., on the death of Lepidus, he had the high title of pontifex maximus, or high priest, bestowed on him. The nation surrendered to him all the power and honor that it had to give.

After a course of victories in Asia, Spain, Pannonia, Dalmatia, Gauì, etc., A. (9 B.C.) suffered the greatest defeat he had sustained in the course of his long rule, in the person of Quintilius Varus, whose army was totally destroyed by the Germans.

This loss so afflicted A. that for some time he allowed his beard and hair to grow, as a sign of deep mourning, and often exclaimed: "O Varus, restore me my legions!" From this time A. confined himself to plans of domestic improvement and reform, and so beautified Rome, that it was said, "A. found the city built of bricks, and left it built of marble." He also founded cities in several parts of the empire; and altars were raised by the grateful people to commemorate his beneficence; while by a decree of the senate, the name Augustus was given to the month Sextilis.

Though surrounded thus with honor and prosperity, A. was not free from domestic trouble. The abandoned conduct of his daughter Julia was the cause of sore vexation to him. He had no son, and Marcellus, the son of his sister, and Caius and Lucius, the sons of his daughter, whom he had appointed as his successors and heirs, as well as his favorite step-son Drusus, all died early; while his step-son Tiberius was an unamiable character whom he could not love. Age, domestic sorrows, and failing health warned him to seek rest; and to recruit his strength, he undertook a journey to Campania; but his infirmity increased, and he died at Nola (Aug. 19, A.D. 14), in the 77th year of his age. According to tradition, shortly before his death, he called for a mirror, arranged his hair neatly, and said to his attendants: "Have I played my part well? If so, applaud me!" A. had consummate tact and address as a ruler and politician, and could keep his plans in secrecy while he made use of the passions and talents of others to forward his own designs. The good and great measures which marked his reign were originated mostly by A. himself. He encouraged agriculture, patronized the arts and literature, and was himself an author; but only a few fragments of his writings have been preserved. Horace, Virgil, and all the most celebrated Latin poets and scholars, were his friends. His was the Augustan age of literature. His death threw a shade of sorrow over the whole Roman world; the bereaved people erected temples and altars to his memory, and numbered him among the gods. See illus., ROMAN ART, vol. XII., p. 742, fig. 1.

AUGUSTUS, Elector of Saxony (1553–1586), son of duke Henry the pious, and of Katherine of Mecklenburg, was b. July 31, 1526, at Freiberg, then the seat of his father's court. While still a youth, he spent some time at Prague, and there formed an intimate friendship with Maximilian, king Ferdinand's son, afterwards emperor of Germany. In 1548, he married Anna, daughter of Christian III. of Denmark, who was universally popular on account of her devoted adherence to Lutheranism and of her domestic worth. After the death of his brother Maurice in 1553, A. succeeded to the electorate. His rule is chiefly noticeable as bearing upon the history of the newly established Protestant church. Equally intolerant and inconsistent in his theology, A. first used his utmost influence in favor of the Calvinistic doctrine of the sacraments; and then, in 1574, adopted the Lutheran tenets, and persecuted the Calvinists. On the other hand, however, it must be owned, to his honor, that, by his skillful internal administration, he raised his country far above the level of any other in Germany, introducing valuable reforms both in jurisprudence and finance, and giving a decided impetus to education, agriculture, manufactures, and commerce. He even wrote a book on the

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