Baker.

BA'JA, a market t. of Hungary, in the circle of Bacs, on the Danube, celebrated for its annual swine-fair. Grain and wine, in large quantities, are produced in its neighborhood. Pop. '80, 19,241.

BA'JAN. See BEJAN.

BAJAZET', or BAJASID (pronounced Bayazet') I., Sultan of the Turks, was b. in 1347. In 1389, he succeeded his father, Murad I., who fell in battle near Kossova, fighting against the Servians. Immediately on ascending the throne, he inaugurated his rule, after the fashion of eastern kings, by strangling his younger brother Yacub, lest he should dispute the succession. In three years he conquered Bulgaria, a part of Servia, Macedonia, and Thessaly; he also subdued most of the states of Asia Minor. From the rapidity with which these extraordinary conquests were effected, he received the name of Ilderim-that is, Lightning. He even blockaded Constantinople itself for ten years, thinking to subdue it by famine. To rescue this city, king Sigismund of Hungary (afterwards emperor of Germany) assembled a large army, in which there were 2000 French nobles, under the command of the duke of Nivey. With this army, king Sigismund attacked the city of Nikopolis, in Bulgaria, situated on the Danube. B. hastened to meet him, and gained a decisive victory over the allied Hungarians, Poles, and French, on the 28th Sept., 1396. Sigismund escaped captivity only by a speedy flight in disguise; but the greater part of the French, through whose impetuosity the battle was lost, were taken prisoners, and were nearly all executed. B. would now have entirely destroyed the Greek empire, if he had not been prevented by Timur (q.v.), who attacked his possessions in Asia Minor, and completely defeated him on the 16th June, 1401, near Angora, the capital of what was anciently called Galatia, on the very spot where Pompey had formerly overthrown Mithridates. B. himself fell into the hands of the conqueror, who treated him with great generosity. The story that he was carried about imprisoned in a cage is without any historical foundation. B. died in 1403, in the camp of Timur. He was succeeded in the government by his son Soliman I. B. was honorably distinguished by his efforts to improve the administration of justice. During the 14 years of his reign, he built a large number of mosques, among others, one at Adrianople, and a second at Broussa, which two cities were then the ordinary residences of the Ottoman princes.

BAJAZET II., son of the sultan Mohammed II., the conqueror of Constantinople, was b. in 1447, and ascended the Ottoman throne after his father's death in 1481. His reign, which lasted 32 years, was a succession of uninterrupted wars against Hungary, Poland, Venice, Egypt, and Persia, which were carried on with various success and without any events of striking importance, yet which served on the whole to establish the Ottoman power. The last years of his reign were much disturbed by disputes between his sons about the succession to the throne. Influenced by the preference shown by the janizaries for his younger son Selim, B. abdicated in his favor, but died before he could reach the place of his voluntary exile, in the neighborhood of Adrianople, in the year 1513. B. was a friend to the dervishes, at the same time liberal and fond of pomp and splendor. Many of the most beautiful mosques in Constantinople and Adrianople were built by him, and fitted up in a style of the greatest magnificence. BA JIMONT'S ROLL, the name given to a valuation, according to which the ecclesiastical benefices of Scotland were taxed, from the end of the 13th c. to the reformation. It took its name from an Italian churchman, Benemund or Baiamund de Vicci, who was sent from Rome by the pope about the year 1276, to collect the tithe, or tenth part of all the church livings in Scotland, for an expedition to the Holy Land. Hitherto, the Scotch clergy had been taxed according to a conventional valuation, called the antiqua taxatio. But Baiamund set this aside; and, in spite of their reclamations, assessed the benefices at their actual yearly worth, or verus valor. Although more than once referred to as an authoritative document in statutes of the 15th c., no complete copy of B. R., in its original shape, is now known to exist. A contemporary manuscript of so much of the roll as applies to the archdeaconry of Lothian, or that portion of the diocese of St. Andrews which lies to the s. of the Forth (comprehending the counties of Berwick, Haddington, Edinburgh, Linlithgow, and part of Stirlingshire), is preserved at Durham. The real value of the benefices in this district, as set down in B. R., exceeds the conventional value in the antiqua taxatio in the proportion of 420 to 286. A copy of B. R., as it appears to have existed in the reign of king James V. (1513-42), is preserved in the advocates' library at Edinburgh, in a hand of the beginning of the 17th century. It is full of inaccuracies; and it omits all livings of less than 40 marks a year. Of the antiqua taxatio, which was superseded by B. R., there are good copies in the handwriting of the 13th c., so far as concerns the benefices in the four dioceses of St. Andrews, Brechin, Aberdeen, and Moray.

BAJ MAK, or BAJMOK, a large village of the Austrian empire, in Hungary, province of Bacs, 16 m. s. w. of Theresienstadt.

BAJOC CO, or BAIOCCO (pl. BAJOCCHI), was a copper coin in the Papal States, value nearly a half-penny. It was th of the scudo, which was equal to 48. 34d. In the island of Sicily, the Neapolitan grano, the both part of the ducato (= 38. 4d.), was also called a bajocco.

BAʼJUS, MICHAEL (properly, De Bay), one of the most distinguished theologians of the Catholic church in the 16th c., was b. in 1513 at Melun. He studied at Louvain, and became professor of theology there in 1550. He was present at the council of Trent in 1563, and also in 1564. He was the founder of a system of theology, based directly on the Bible and the writings of the Fathers, and setting aside the scholastic method. He had studied much the writings of St. Augustine, and therefore confined himself closely within the circle of ideas held by this father of the church, whose doctrines of the entire inability of the human will to do good, and the absence of merit in all good works, B. defended against the Jesuits. The assertions that the human will, so long as it is left to its own freedom, can do nothing but sin, and that even the mother of our Lord was not free from original and actual sin, together with other such doctrines, drew on him the accusation of heresy. Seventy-six of his propositions were condemned by a papal bull. B. submitted, but nevertheless did not give up his doctrines, and, in consequence, the persecutions to which he was subjected did not cease. He d. Dec. 16, 1589, having earned the reputation of great learning, pure manners, and singular modesty. He may be regarded as the predecessor of the Jansenists, who inherited his Augustinian views, which were at that time termed Bajanism. His writings, mostly of a polemical nature, were published by Gerberon (2 vols. Cologne, 1696).

BAJZA, ANTON, a Hungarian poet and prose-writer, was b. Jan. 31, 1804, at Szücsi, in Hertes. His poems (2 vols. 1835), which were published in Pesth, earned for him a place among the best Hungarian lyric poets. In the Kritischen Blättern, to which he contributed from 1831 to 1836, the Athenæum, and the Figyelmezö (Observer), to which he contributed from 1837 to 1843, in common with many of the best literary writers of the day, he exercised a beneficial influence on the rising literature of Hungary by his severe criticism, and his solid and theoretically correct essays. He likewise materially aided the Hungarian stage, then in its infancy, by the publication of the Ausländischen Bühne (Foreign Dramas, Pesth, 1830), and also by his exertions as director of the National Theatre, opened in Pesth on Aug. 22, 1837. At the same time, he had begun to occupy himself with historical studies, and enriched the literature of Hungary, very poor in this respect, with a Törtéreti Könyvtár (Historical Library, 6 vols., Pesth, 1843-45), which contained translations from many excellent foreign historical works. He also published a compilation from the German, Uj_Plutarch (The Modern Plutarch, Pesth, 1845-47). His Világtörtéret (Universal History, Pesth, 1847) is a rather unskillful compilation from Schlosser, Heeren, Rotteck, and other German historians. After Mar., 1848, Kossuth appointed him editor of his half-official organ, the Kossuth Hirlapja (July till Dec., 1848), in conducting which, however, he displayed no great editorial talent. B. was made a member of the Hungarian academy in 1832. He d. Mar., 1858.

BAKALAHARI, one of the Bechuana tribes of Africa, in the Kalahari descrt, s. of lake Ngami toward Orange river. They mingle with the Bushmen, and make some attempts at agriculture and traffic.

BÁKARGANJ, a district in India between 23° 14' to 21° 48′ n.. and 89° 55′ to 91° 5' e., on the bay of Bengal; 4935 sq.m.; pop. 2,377,423. It is level, with not a single hillock, and full of tidal streams and marshes, but well cultivated. In the s. part are tigers, leopards, and other wild beasts. Of its population, 1,540,965 were Moslems.

BAKER co., Alabama. See CHILTON.

BAKER, a co. in n.e. Florida, on St. Mary's river; 500 sq.m.; pop. '80, 2303-643 colored. Products, corn, sweet potatoes, sugar, and molasses. In the n. part is a portion of the Okefenoke swamp. Co. seat, Sanderson.

BAKER, a co. in s.w. Georgia, on Flint river, 340 sq.m. pop. '80, 7307-5565 colored. It has fertile soil, producing chiefly corn and cotton. Co. seat, Newton.

BAKER, a co. in e. Oregon, bordering on Nevada and Idaho; about 10,500 sq.m.; pop. '80, 4616-787 Chinese. It has gold and silver mines, and produces wheat, barley, etc. Co. scat, Baker City. In 1872, a part of Grant co. was added.

BAKER, EDWARD DICKINSON, b. England, 1811; killed in the battle of Ball's Bluff, Va., 1861. He came to this country when a child; studied and practiced law; was a member of the Illinois legislature, and in 1844 member of congress from that state; resigned, and volunteered in the Mexican war; commanded a brigade at the battle of Cerro Gordo; after the war, was again chosen congressman, but resigned, and in 1852 settled in California. Thence he went to Oregon, and was United States senator from that state. When the rebellion began, he raised a regiment in New York and neighborhood, was offered a commission as brig.gen. but declined it, and fell at the head of his favorite troops.

BAKER, Sir HENRY WILLIAMS. See page 881.

BAKER, JEHU. See page 881.

BAKER, OSMOn Cleander, d.D., 1812–71; b. N. H.; a clergyman; educated at Wesleyan university; began his pastorate in 1844; in 1847 occupied the chair of theology in the Methodist Biblical institute at Concord, N. H.; was afterwards president of the

II.-5

institution until 1852, when he was chosen bishop of the Methodist Episcopal church. He is author of a work on ecclesiastical law and polity of the church.

BAKER, Sir RICHARD, author of the Chronicle of the Kings of England, a book long esteemed and quoted on all matters of English history by the country gentry. Addison makes his model squire, Sir Roger de Coverley, refer to it frequently. Notwithstanding its reputation, however, among that class, the book had no lack of errors, and is now all but forgotten. Its author was born in Kent, or, according to other accounts, in Oxfordshire, about the year 1568. He was educated at Oxford university, and in 1603 was made a knight. About 1620 he married and settled in Oxfordshire, of which county he was made high sheriff; but he was soon after thrown into the Fleet prison for debt which his wife's family had contracted, but for which he had become responsible. Here he wrote his Chronicle, first published in 1641, besides several pious works of less note. He died in prison, in great poverty, in 1645.

BAKER, Sir SAMUEL WHITE, K.C.B., an African traveler, was b. in 1821. He is the son of Mr. Samuel Baker, of Thorngrove, in Worcestershire. B. was educated as an engineer, and at an early age went to Ceylon. There, led by the love of field-sports into the recesses of the island, he gave evidence of that love of adventure which was to make him famous as an explorer. In 1854, he published a work entitled The Rifle and the Hound in Ceylon; and in 1855, Eight Years' Wandering in Ceylon. B. afterwards superintended the construction of the railway which connects the Danube across the Dobrudscha with the Black sea. In 1860, B. married Florence, the daughter of F. von Sass, a young Hungarian lady of great talent and enterprise; and in company with her, he undertook a journey of exploration on the upper Nile. They set out from Cairo in April, 1861; and B. devoted his attention first to the Atbara and Blue Nile, the chief affluents of the Nile, which descend from the highlands of Abyssinia. In June, he arrived at the course of the Atbara, which was at that season dry, or marked only by a few stagnant pools. On the 23d, when the Abyssinian rainy season had set in, a noise like distant thunder was heard, and in a few seconds the river-bed had been converted into a torrent 20 ft. deep. Eight days later, it had become a great river, charged with mud, washed from the hills, which it carried down to the Nile, to cause the inundations and mud deposits of Egypt. B. reached Khartoum in June, 1862, and there he had an opportunity of contrasting the Blue and White Nile. He found the former, like the Atbara, to be a mountain torrent, rising and falling with the Abyssinian rains, but always free from deposits of mud. The White Nile did not thus rise and fall, and its water, never pure, had a disagreeable taste of vegetation, showing that it proceeded from lakes and marshes. When B., with his wife, quitted Khartoum to ascend the White Nile, ho had in his pay an escort of 90 persons, 29 camels and asses, and three large boats. After passing through a wonderful region of forests and marshes, the travelers reached Gondokoro, a rendezvous of the traders of the interior. They had only been there a fortnight, when they were joined by Speke and Grant, who had penetrated into those regions from the south. Speke and Grant told B. of the Victoria N'yanza, which they had just discovered and explored, and that the natives had described to them another great lake, named Luta Nzige, which they had been unable to visit. B. resolved to reach this lake; and after a series of adventures, he and his wife arrived, on the 14th Mar., 1864, on the top of lofty cliffs, from which they beheld the vast inland sca, to which B. gave the name of the Albert N'yanza. In 1869, an expedition for the suppression of slavery in the interior of Africa was organized by the pasha of Egypt, under B.'s command. B. returned in 1873, and reported the success of the expedition. The resignation of his successor, col. Gordon, however, and the deposition of the Khedive in 1879, again led to a suspension of government control in the valley of the Nile. B. was knighted in 1866. In 1866, he published The Albert N'yanza; in 1871, The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia; in 1874, Ismailia, an account of his expedition of 1869-73; and in 1879, Cyprus as I saw it in 1879.

BAKER PASHA. See page 881.

BAKER, WILLIAM MUMFORD, b. 1825; a graduate of Princeton and author of the life of his father, Daniel B.; Inside, a Chronicle of Secession; The New Timothy; The Virginians in Texas, etc. Mr. Baker was a Presbyterian pastor in Texas and Ohio, and later, a pastor in Boston, Mass. His last work was The Ten Theophanies. He d. 1883.

BAKERIES, ARMY. Armies have generally the means of obtaining soft or loaf bread, though not till recently could this be said of the British army. The French, ever since the time of Louis XIV., have been accustomed to take portable ovens with their armies; those now used will each bake 450 rations at once. Outside Sebastopol, in the winter of 1854, the British soldiers sometimes willingly exchanged with the French 3 or 4 lbs. of biscuit for 1 lb. of soft bread. The efforts since made to improve the sanitary condition of the army have included the establishment of traveling bakeries for fieldservice. Under the commissaries, the troops now rarely fail to obtain their daily rations of fresh-baked bread. We were last among the greater nations to make this obvious improvement; but the French depend more on bread and less on meat than the English; and this may partly account for the difference. The French soldiers are taught to construct field-ovens, and to bake their bread in camp, while government B. are established all over France, entirely conducted by soldiers. Among other lessons afforded by the siege of Sebastopol, was one relating to an improved supply of army-bread. Two screw

steamers, the Bruiser and the Abundance, were sent out to Balaklava, one provided with machinery for grinding corn, and the other with machinery and ovens for making and baking bread. In each case the ship and the machinery were propelled by the same steam-engine. When quietly anchored in the harbor, the mill ground 24,000 lbs. of flour per day-better in quality, and cheaper than could have been obtained by contract. The bakery ship Abundance had four ovens of 14 bushels' capacity each; it baked in an excellent manner 6000 loaves of 3 lbs. cach per day, which loaves were sent up to the siege-army as soon as cooled. The ships and machinery were sold when the war was over-a proceeding which the commissariat officers much regretted; but the experience thence obtained will not be lost. The improved arrangements suggested for meat-rations are noticed under COOKERY, ARMY.

BAKEWELL, a small but very ancient t. in Derbyshire, on the left bank of the Wye, near its confluence with the Derwent, and 24 m. n.n.w. of Derby. It lies on the slope of a hill, in the midst of very beautiful scenery, in a carboniferous limestone tract, and in the vicinity of black marble quarries, and of coal and lead mines. Its chalybeate springs and warm baths are much resorted to. The celebrated Arkwright first estab lished cotton-mills here. On the opposite bank of the Wye are the traces of a castle built by Edward the Elder in 924. B. is now the property of the duke of Rutland, whose seat is Haddon hall, two m. from the town. B. is a center for visiting the fine scenery of North Derbyshire and the Peak; and the streams in the vicinity are much resorted to by anglers. It contains a spacious cruciform church, founded in Saxon times, and showing specimens of ecclesiastical Gothic architecture of three different periods. The special industry of B. is the turning, polishing, and inlaying of the local marble. Pop. '71, 2283; '81, 2502.

BAKEWELL, ROBERT, a celebrated agriculturist, was b. in 1726 at Dishley, in the co. of Leicester, and d. in 1795. He does not appear to have written anything, even upon the subjects with which he was so well acquainted, so that his fame rests entirely upon his successful efforts to improve the breed of domestic animals. His reputation was so great as a breeder of sheep, that he is said to have received the fabulous sum of 400 guineas for one season of a ram. The long-horned breed of cattle which he introduced is still known as the Dishley or New Leicestershire breed. His horses were also famous, and almost as profitable to him as his sheep. One of his objects was to produce a breed of animals that would fatten on the smallest quantity of food.

BAKHTEGAN', a salt-lake of Persia, province of Farsistan, from which remarkably fine salt is obtained. Its size is variously stated-some writers making it 60 m. in length, with an average breadth of 8 m.; others, only 70 m. in circumference.

BAKING POWDERS. See page 881.

BAKING is the mode of cooking food in an air-tight chamber or oven. The term is also applied in the manufacture of bricks (q.v.), porcelain (q.v.), etc. The B. of bread will be treated under BREAD. The oven attached to kitchen-grates for cooking is simply an iron chamber, with flues for conveying the heated gases of the fire round it. In B., strictly so called, the oven is kept close, so that the steam and aroma arising from the inclosed substances are confined; but by opening ventilators a current of air is produced, and then these ovens may be used for what is called oven-roasting. The rank taste that often characterizes baked dishes is thus avoided. Ovens are now often heated by water, or by steam, and also by gas. Meat for B. is placed in a dish, from the bottom of which it is raised on a wire frame or trivet. In M. Soyer's B.-dish, a wire frame rests on the edge of the dish, and on this potatoes are laid; a trivet, rising above the frame, supports the meat; while the bottom of the dish contains a Yorkshire pudding; the dripping thus falls upon the potatoes and pudding below.

B., although a convenient mode of cooking, is not considered quite so good as roasting (q.v.). The practice of having recourse to the baker's oven, saves both trouble and expense in heating, and is a matter of necessity with those who have not means of cooking at home; but it has this chief objection, that every dish becomes impregnated with the steam and odors of all the rest. Soyer pronounces it to be semi-barbarous.

BAKONY WALD (forest of Bakony), a densely wooded mountain-range of Hungary, s. of the Danube, dividing the great and little Hungarian plains. Immense herds of swine are annually driven hither to feed upon the mast of the forest. The keepers of these swine furnished those notorious robbers who play so important a part in the ballads of the Hungarian people, and in the imagination of travelers. The saintly king Stephen founded a cloister in the forest 1030 A.D. Only in recent times has this dangerous territory been thoroughly explored. The hills have an average height of 2000 ft., with quarries of valuable marble, in which a considerable export trade is done.

BAK'SHISH. The ordinary meaning of this word in Persian is a present; but in the east, in modern times, it has acquired the special signification of gratuity (Ger. Trinkgeld), which, however, the orientals do not quietly wait to receive, but demand loudly, and even insolently. Every traveler, whether in Turkey or in Egypt, in Asia Minor or in Syria, if he receives the smallest service from any one, is immediately reminded by the cry of "Bakshish, Bakshish," to pay for the courtesy by a gift of money. Even when the ambassadors to the supreme porte obtain an audience from the sultan, or from any of the high dignitaries, they are obliged, by the prompt gift of a B., to avoid a peremp

Balance.

tory demand for it on the part of the door-keepers and other servants. By degrees, the B. has been fixed by custom at certain sums.

BAKTSHI-SERAI' (the "City of the Gardens"), the residence of the ancient princes or khans of the Crimea, stands in a deep limestone valley, not far from the present capital, Simferopol. The city is kept in excellent repair, and had a pop. in 1867 of 11,448, consisting almost exclusively of remnants of the old Tartar inhabitants. It thus presents a striking contrast to the modern towns of the Crimea, and is one of the most singular in Europe. The palace of the ancient khans has been completely restored by the Russian government in the oriental style. It consists of a great labyrinth of buildings, courts and gardens, and is situated about the middle of the town, dividing it into two parts. The chief manufactures of the place consist of articles of copper, Turkish saddles, and silk. Pop. '80, 10,530.

BAKUNIN, MICHAEL. See page 881.

BAKU', a seaport t. of the Apsheron peninsula, in the Caspian sea. It is under the dominion of Russia, and contains (1867) 12,383 inhabitants, chiefly Persians and Armenians. The whole soil around B. is impregnated with petroleum, which forms an important branch of its industry. Some of the fountains ignite spontaneously, and this natural phenomenon has caused B. to be esteemed as a holy city by the Parsees or fireworshipers, many of whom resort to it from very long distances. B., besides its trade in naphtha, exports cotton, silk, opium, saffron, and salt. The Arabian, Masudi, is the first who mentions B., about 943, and he gives an account of a great volcanic mountain in its vicinity, which is now extinct. B. was ceded by the Persians to the Russians in 1813. Capt. Baker states that the refuse of the oil drawn from the wells is, after the petroleum has been distilled from it, used now with great success as a substitute for coal in the steamers on the Caspian sea. The harbor, which is strongly fortified, is one of the chief stations of the Russian navy in the Caspian, and is also of great importance as a center of trade. A good deal of ship-building is carried on. B. is capital of a govern ment of Russian Transcaucasia, with a pop. (1871) of 513,560; (1880), 540,800.

BA'LA BEDS, a local deposit, occurring in the neighborhood of Bala, in North Wales, and forming a group in the lower silurian of Murchison. They consist of a few beds, rarely more than 20 ft. in thickness. The beds are chiefly composed of hard crystalline limestone, alternating with softer argillaceous bands, which decompose more freely, and leave the limestone like a cornice molding, affording a characteristic by which, at a considerable distance, the B. B. can be distinguished from the rocks of hard gritty slate above and below. Trilobites and cystider are the predominant fossils of the group. Calcareous beds, containing similar fossils, have been noticed in the silurian district of the s.e. of Ireland, and referred to this group.

BA'LAAM, the name of a prophet who figures prominently in the early history of the Israelites. He is first mentioned in Numbers xxii. 5, where Balak, king of the Moabites, alarmed at the irruption of the chosen people into his territories, is represented as sending messengers to Pethor, in Mesopotamia, the dwelling-place of the seer, to beseech him to come and curse the invaders. The narrative is, of course, familiar to every one, and it is therefore unnecessary to recount it; but it is marked by two peculiarities, which have excited much speculation and controversy. The first is the admittedly prophetical character of B., who was a Gentile; the second is the curious miracle in the case of his

ass.

With regard to the supernatural powers attributed to B., the most prevalent hypothesis is, that he was the last relic of the patriarchal age, during which communion with God was not formally restricted to one race, but diffused more or less among all the Semitic peoples. Some, again, suppose that his knowledge of God, from whom he apparently received miraculous communications, was derived from traditions of the primitive faith, scattered over Mesopotamia by Abraham, Jacob, Laban, etc.; though Hengstenberg conceives that he had been led to renounce idolatry by hearing of the miracles which attended the exodus of the Israelites, anticipating, as a reward for his change of worship, a further insight into futurity, and a greater power over nature. B. has ever been considered a type of those men who prostitute their powers and hold the truth in unrighteousness, receiving the wages thereof.

BALE'NA. See WHALE.

BALENOP'TERA. See RORQUAL.

BALAGHAT DISTRICTS, the name given to a large tract of elevated country in the s. of India, 28,669 sq.m. in area, and extending from the rivers Tumbuddra and Krishna in the n. to the furthest extremity of Mysore in the south. Part of the ancient Hindu kingdom of Carnata, it was conquered by the Mohammedans, and fell into the hands of the British on the final overthrow of Tippoo (q.v.). The name Balaghat signifies above the ghauts.

BALAKLA VA, a small port in the s. w. of the Crimea, separated by a rocky peninsula from the harbor of Sebastopol, from which the direct distance is about 6 miles. Pop. in '82, 895. The harbor, which affords secure anchorage for the largest ships, is perfectly landlocked, the entrance being so narrow as scarcely to admit more than one vessel at a time. To the e., overlooking the bay from a rocky eminence, are the ruins of a Genoese fortress. The foundation of the work is excavated into numerous chambers and galleries. It is the Symbolon Limen of Strabo; and the present name is supposed by