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Aurora.

vated in pots, and require great attention. They are protected from the severe weather of winter, and during the flowering-season, from wind and rain. They ought, however, previous to flowering, to stand in an airy, sunny situation. Their delicacy forms a striking contrast to the natural hardiness of the plant; but few sights are more pleasing than that of a collection of choice auriculas, tastefully arranged. They are propagated by offsets, generally in the latter part of August.-When it is proposed to raise the A. from seed, care ought to be taken to select the finest flowers, which are encouraged to ripen their seeds by exposure to sun and air, hand-glasses being placed over them during heavy rains. The seed is sown either in autumn or spring, generally in boxes placed under shelter, or in a slight hot-bed. The more weakly plants are tended with particular care, as they are generally found to produce the finest flowers.

The name A., originally Latin, is derived from auris, an ear on account of a fancied resemblance of the leaves to the ears of an animal.

AURICULA, a genus, and AURICU'LIDE, a family of gastropod mollusca. They have a spiral shell, covered with a horny epidermis, the first whirl very large and the spire short, the aperture elongated and toothed. They belong to that section of gastropods in which the sexes are united in the individual, and to the same order with the common snails, having respiratory organs adapted for breathing in air, although some of them are capable of subsisting for a considerable time in water. Some of them inhabit fresh-water marshes, and others prefer the vicinity of salt water. They generally belong to warm climates, and some of them attain a large size. Auricula midæ, a native of the East Indies, is known to shell collectors by the name of Midas's ear. AURICULAR CONFESSION. See CONFESSION.

AURICULATE, in botany, a term applied to leaves, stipules, etc., and signifying that they have at the base two small ear-like lobes.

AURIFABER (Lat. for GOLDSCHMIDT), JOANNES, 1519-79; a Lutheran divine, friend and companion of the reformer. He was educated at Wittenberg, became tutor to count Mansfeldt, and in the war of 1544 was with the army as chaplain. Afterwards he lived with Luther as his secretary, and was present at his death. Half of the next year he was in prison with the elector of Saxony, who had been captured by Charles V. He was for some years court preacher at Weimar, and in 1566 was appointed minister of the Lutheran church at Erfurt, holding the place until his death. He collected many of Luther's manuscripts and letters, and assisted in editing them. He also published Luther's Table Talk, in 1566.

AURIGA, or THE WAGONER; a northern constellation in which is Capella, a very brilliant star of the first magnitude.

A. is

AURILLAC, a t. of France, capital of the dep. of Cantal (Auvergne). situated in a pleasant valley on the banks of the Jourdanne, about 269 m. s. from Paris. It is said to owe its origin to a Benedictine monastery founded in the 9th c. by St. Gerard. The English, in the 14th and 15th centuries, often besieged the town, and it was frequently taken and pillaged during the religious wars in France in the 16th century. The streets are wide, but irregular, and are kept clean by streams supplied by a reservoir above the town and by a canal from the Jourdanne. The neighboring quarries supply slates to cover the houses. The principal buildings of A. are the churches of Notre Dame and St. Gerard, St. Stephen's castle, the theater, college buildings, which contain a valuable public library, and the corn market. There is also a monument erected to the memory of the French philanthropist, M. de Montyon. Paper, jewelry, lace, copper utensils, leather, and beer are the chief industrial products. Pope Sylvester II. was b. at A., and the infamous Carrier of the first French revolution. Pop. '81, 13,727.

AURIOL, a t. in France, in the dep. of Bouches-du-Rhône, 16 m. n.e. of Mar seilles; pop. '81, 2942. The manufacture of flags is a prominent business, and there are coal-mines near the town.

AUROCHS, the European bison; a wild animal of the bos family, once plentiful over northern Europe, but now scarce and probably to be found only in the royal Lithuanian forests, where it is protected. The A. was probably contemporary with the mammoth, and it is thought to be the animal described in Cæsar's works as abundant in the forests of Gaul. There were two species, bos urus and bos primigenius; and of both fossil re mains are found in post-tertiary deposits in Europe and America. It has been suggested that the animal furnished food for prehistoric mankind.

AURORA (styled Eos by the Greeks), the goddess of the dawn, or "morning redness," was the daughter of Hyperion and Theia, and sister of Helios and Selene, and wife of the Titan Astræus. Zephyrus, Boreas, Notus, Hesperus and the other stars were her children. She was described as rising in the morning from her bed in the ocean, borne along on a chariot drawn by the divine steeds Lampus and Phaeton, ascending heaven from the river Oceanus, where she lifted with her "rosy fingers" the curtain of night, and announced the light both to gods and men. Homer frequently describes A. as the goddess of day, and the tragic writers identified A. with Hemera (the day). She was represented as clothed in a rosy-yellow rebe, with a star shining on her forehead, and a torch in her right hand. She had a passion for mortal youths, and carried off Orion, Cleitus, and Tithonus.

AURORA, co. Dak. See page 879.

AURORA, a city in Kane co., Ill., on Fox river, and the Chicago and Iowa, and Chicago, Burlington and Quincy railroads, 38 m. s. w. of Chicago; pop. '80, 12,059. The river furnishes abundant water-power for manufacturing purposes. There are railway repair shops here, which employ about 1000 men.

AURORA, a city in Dearborn co., Ind., on the Ohio river, and the Louisville branch of the Ohio and Mississippi railroad; 25 m. below Cincinnati. It has a number of manufactories, but the river trade is the most important business. Pop. '80, 4435.

The

AURORA BOREALIS, or NORTHERN LIGHTS, (Ger. Nordlicht), the name given to the luminous phenomenon which is seen towards the n. of the heavens by the inhabitants of the higher latitudes. During the winter of the northern hemisphere, the inhabitants of the arctic zone are without the light of the sun for months together, and their long dreary night is relieved by the light of this beautiful meteor, which occurs with great frequency in these regions. Those who have explored the southern seas have seen the same phenomenon in the direction of the south pole, so that the term polar lights might be more appropriate than northern lights to designate the aurora. appearance of the A. B. has been described by a great variety of observers, both in northern and central Europe, all of whom give substantially the same account of the manner in which the phenomenon takes place. It is briefly as follows: A dingy aspect of the sky in the direction of the n. is generally the precursor of the aurora; and this gradually becomes darker in color, and assumes the form of a circular segment surrounded by a luminous arch, and resting at each end on the horizon. This dark segment, as it is called, has the appearance of a thick cloud, and is frequently seen as such in the fading twilight before the development of the auroral light. Its density must, however, be very small, as stars are sometimes seen shining brightly through it. This dark segment is bounded by a luminous arch of a bluish-white color, which varies in breadth from 1 to 6 diameters of the moon, having the lower edge sharply defined, and the upper edge only when the breadth of the arch is small. This arch may be considered to be a part of a luminous ring elevated at a considerable distance above the earth's surface, and having its center corresponding with some point near the north pole. An observer several degrees s. of this auroral ring would see towards the n. only a small arc of it, the larger part being hid by the earth; to one situated not so far s., it would appear as a larger and higher arch; to one placed below it, it would be seen as an arch passing through the zenith; and to one situated within the ring and further n., it would be found as an arch culminating in the s. On this supposition, nearly all the various positions of the auroral arch may be accounted for. The center of the ring corresponds probably with the magnetic n., which is at present situated in the island of Boothia Felix. Hence it is that in Greenland, which is situated to the e. of this island, the auroral arch has been seen stretching from n. to s. with its highest point in the w. The luminous arch, once formed, remains visible for several hours, and is in a constant state of motion. It rises and falls, extends toward the e. and towards the w., and breaks sometimes in one part, sometimes in another. These motions become all the more observable when the arch is about to shoot forth rays; then it becomes luminous at one point, eats in upon the dark segment, and a ray of similar brightness to the arch mounts with the rapidity of lightning towards the zenith. The ray seldom keeps the same form for any length of time; but undergoes continual changes, moving eastward and westward, and fluttering like a ribbon agitated by the wind. After some time, it gradually fades in brightness, and at last gives way to other rays. When the aurora attains its full brightness and activity, rays are projected from every part of the arch, and if they do not rise too high, it presents the appearance of a comb furnished with teeth. When the rays are very bright, they sometimes assume a green, sometimes a violet, a purple, or a rose color, giving to the whole a variegated and brilliant effect. The whole display will sometimes assume the form of a long banner waving in the breeze in a horizontal direction, making a most gorgeous and magnificent display, but this phenomenon is not frequently seen. When the rays darted by the luminous arch are numerous and of great length, they culminate in a point which is situated in the prolongation of the dipping needle, somewhat s.e. of the zenith. There they form what is called the boreal crown; and the whole heavens, towards the e., w., and n., present the appearance of a vast cupola of fire, supported by columns of variously colored light. When the rays are darted less brilliantly, the crown first disappears, then, here and there, the light becomes faint and intermittent, till at last the whole phenomenon fades from the sky.

The preceding description indicates the general features of the appearance of the A. B.; but several auroras have been described which presented striking peculiarities. Sometimes the phenomenon assumed the form of one or more curtains of light, depending from dingy clouds, whose folds were agitated to and fro, as if by the wind. Sometimes this curtain seemed to consist of separate ribbons of light, arranged side by side in groups of different lengths, and attaining their greatest brilliancy at the lower edges. In this country the A. B. seldom occurs with the distinctness and brilliancy which attend it in northern latitudes, but the description just given portrays the type to which such appearance of the meteor more or less approximates.

The height of the aurora has been variously estimated. The first observers were

Ausonius.

inclined to place the seat of it beyond the atmosphere; but this hypothesis is untenable, as the aurora does not seem to be affected by the rotation of the earth, but appears to be in every respect a terrestrial phenomenon. By taking observations of the altitude of the highest point of the arch of the same aurora at different stations, heights varying from 5 to 500 m. have been calculated. The cause of these widely differing results may be found in the probability that exists of each observer seeing a different arch of the aurora for himself, and he is, in consequence, furnished with no comparable or reliable data for his calculations. It is now, however, generally admitted, on what are considered to be sufficient grounds, that the A. B. occurs at various heights, and that it is seldom found beyond 90 m. above the surface of the earth. The distance of the stations at which the same aurora has been visible, indicates the enormous geographical extent, and likewise the great altitude which the phenomenon frequently attains. One aurora, for instance that which occurred on the 3d of Sept., 1839 was seen in the Isle of Skye by M. de Saussure; at Paris, by the astronomers of the observatory; at Asti, in northern Italy, by M. Quetelet; at New Haven, in Connecticut, by Mr. Herrick; and at New Orleans, by credible observers. On the other hand, some observers of eminence assert that the aurora sometimes descends to the region of the clouds, and appears almost as a local phenomenon. A brilliant aurora was seen by Mr. Farquharson, the minister of Alford, in Aberdeenshire, on the 20th of Dec., 1829, from 8 to 11: 30 in the evening, above a thick bank of clouds, which covered the tops of the hills to the n. of where he lived, and which never attained an altitude of more than 20°. The same aurora was seen in the zenith, at 9:15, by Mr. Paul, another minister, at Tullynessle, which is about 2 m. n. of Alford, so that the height of it could not have been quite 4000 ft.

The noise that is alleged to accompany the A. B. in high latitudes would indicate for it a comparatively moderate height. Some of those who have heard it, compare it to the noise that is produced by the rolling of one piece of silk upon another; and others, to the sound of the wind blowing against the flame of a candle. In Siberia, it has been related that this noise sometimes resembles that attending the discharge of fireworks; and that the dogs of the hunters, when overtaken by such an aurora, lay themselves with terror on the ground.*

The intimate connection between the A. B. and the magnetism of the earth is shown by various facts. During the occurrence of the phenomenon, the magnetic needle appears very much disturbed, sometimes deviating several degrees from its normal position, and appearing to be most affected when the aurora is brightest; and this oscillation is frequently perceived far beyond the district where the aurora is seen. The vertex, likewise, of the luminous arch is almost always found to be in or very near the magnetic meridian, and the boreal crown has its seat in the prolongation of the freely suspended needle. There seems, moreover, to be a connection between the magnetic poles of the earth in regard to the aurora, for, so far as has been ascertained, the meteor occurs simultaneously at both. The A. B. appears to be an electric discharge connected with magnetic disturbance. If one of Gassiot's vacuous tubes be brought near an electric machine, or between the poles of an induction coil, flashes of light pass between the ends, which bear a striking resemblance to the A. B. A comparison of the spectra of the two goes far to establish identity. The auroral spectral line, according to Angström, is a yellow line near the sodium line, and is the same as the air line seen in the solar light when the sun is near the horizon. Other lines, however, have been seen, which cannot aɛ yet be produced by the physicist from any known substance.

A line drawn through the s. of Spain to the n. of the Sandwich islands, and through Cuba, marks the southern limit of the A. B. (in the northern hemisphere); though occasional displays have been noticed even further s. To the n. of a line passing through Edinburgh, the frequency of the A. B. rapidly increases, until a maximum is reached in a line through the n. of Spitzbergen, after which the frequency diminishes as the north pole is approached. See illus., METEOROLOGY, Vol. IX., p. 742, fig. 1.

AURUNGʻABAD, or Throne-town, the name of at least four places in India. The most important is in the territory of the Nizam, situated on the Doodna, a tributary of the Godavery. The pop. is estimated at about 60,000. Its monuments of former grandeur are a palace, now in ruins, built by Aurungzebe, and the mausoleum of his daughter.

AURUNGZEBE' (properly, Aurangzib, "ornament of the throne") was the most powerful of the great Moguls, the last who ruled with energy and effect. He was b. on the 22d Oct., 1618, and was 10 years old when, his grandfather dying, his father, Shah-Jehan, ascended the throne. A. early aspired to wield the rod of empire, but he craftily hid his designs beneath the cloak of piety. In 1657, his father, who had previously promoted him to high civil and military offices in the state, in performing the duties of which he greatly distinguished himself, was seized with an illness from which he was not expected to recover. The reins of power were at once seized by his eldest son, Dára, who treated his brothers very arbitrarily-Shujá at that time being governor of Bengal, A. of the Deccan, and Murad of Guzerat. The first immediately took up arms. A.'s policy was

* Arctic voyagers, such as Parry and Franklin, throw doubt on the existence of any such noise, for not one of the numerous and brilliant auroras seen by them was ever attended with the faintest sound.

Ausonius.

to let the two fight it out, and exhaust each other, and then to play off his third brother against the victor. He conferred with Múrad; assured him he had no earthly ambition; that the crown he strove for was a spiritual, and not a temporal one; and that, for affection's sake, and with a view to promote the interests of the true faith-Dára was liberal in his religious opinions, and had written a book to prove that Mohammed and Brahma agreed in all essential points-he would support his pretensions to the throne. Múrad believed him, and the forces of the two were joined. Meanwhile, Dára having overcome Shuja's army, directed his forces against his other two brothers; but A.'s plausibility prevailed over Dára's generals, who deserted, and Dára had to seek safety in flight. By this time, however, Shah-Jehan had somewhat recovered. A. professed the utmost loyalty, but secretly gave his son instructions to take possession of Shah-Jehan's palace, which was done, and the aged monarch was made prisoner. A. next seized and confined his too confiding brother, Murad; and after a struggle of two or three years' duration, Dára and Shujá also fell into his power, and all three were put to death. The scepter was now firmly within the grasp of Aurungzebe. He professed not to care for the imperial insignia, but was ultimately induced to receive them on Aug. 2, 1678. He, at the same time, assumed the presumptuous title of Alemgír, conqueror of the world." He also took the title of Mohi-eddin, "the reviver of religion." In the seventh year of A.'s reign, his father died, at a good old age; but there are suspicions, nevertheless, that his death was hastened by slow poison, administered by command of his son.

A.'s long reign of half a century was distinguished by great outward prosperity; but the empire was diseased at its heart. Everywhere there was distrust; A., who had established his empire by fraud, was naturally enough distrusted by all. He lacked confidence in his statesmen, who, in their turn, distrusted him and one another. His sons imitated him in his disobedience to his father, and the Hindoos, whom he treated with great harshness, excited the Mahrattas against him in the s. Still his great abilities sufficed during his reign not only to preserve his empire intact, but even to enlarge it considerably. Discord between the monarchs of Bijapur and Golconda, which was mainly due to his policy when acting as governor of the Deccan, enabled him to add these two kingdoms to his empire. But the seeds of decay which had been sown in his reign bore ample fruit in the reign of his son. The decadence of the Mogul empire dates from A.'s death, which took place at Ahmednuggur, on the 21st Feb., 1707, in the 89th year of his age, and 50th of his reign. The latter years of A.'s life were passed in misery. The memory of his own crimes weighed heavy on his soul. He lived in constant dread that he himself would receive of the measure which he had meted out to others. His court was remarkable among oriental courts for its economy and freedom from ostentation. A.'s character was not without its good features, as instanced by the fact, that, in the third year of his reign, when there was a great famine in the land, he gave unreservedly the funds of his treasury, which had been greatly augmented by his frugality, to procure food for his people.

AU SA'BLE, a t. and village in Clinton co., N. Y., on the A. S. river, 7 m. from lake Champlain; pop. of township, '80, 2980. In the vicinity of the village is a great chasm or gorge, much visited by tourists.

AUSCULTATION (Lat. ausculto, to listen), a mode of detecting diseases, especially those of the heart and lungs, by listening to the sounds produced in the cavity of the chest. This is done either by the unassisted ear (immediate A.), or by the aid of a simple soundconveying instrument, the stethoscope (q.v.) (mediate A.). By care and attention, the normal sounds produced by respiration and the beating of the heart may be distinguished from the several abnormal sounds indicating disease. A. is classed among the most important of discoveries in modern medical science. Its details are ably explained by the discoverer, Laennec. See PERCUSSION.

AU'SONES, a tribe of unknown origin in ancient Italy, said in tradition to be descended from Auson, a son of Ulysses and Calypso. They gave the name Ausonia to southern Italy, afterwards called Magna Græcia, Niebuhr supposes they were of the Oscan nation.

AUSO'NIUS, DECIUS MAGNUS, the most conspicuous Roman poet in the 4th c. after Christ, was b. at Burdegala (Bordeaux), about 309 A.D. Scaliger asserts that his father, Julius A., was the favorite physician of the emperor Valentinian, but the assertion has no historic basis, so far as we know. He was, however, a man of considerable importance, having been at one time honorary prefect of Illyricum, and he appears to have taken care that the young A. should receive an excellent education. Many amiable female relatives fostered, and probably flattered the talents of the boy. After finishing his curriculum at Toulouse, he returned to Bordeaux, where, after practicing for a short time at the bar, he turned his attention to literature, and soon distinguished himself as a professor of oratory. Some years later, he was appointed by Valentinian tutor to his son Gratian; afterwards quæstor, and, by Gratian, prefect of Latium, and subsequently consul of Gaul (379 A.D.). On the death of Gratian, A. retired from public life to his estate at Bordeaux, where he occupied himself with literature and rural pursuits until the time of his death (392 A.D.). The question whether or not A. was a “Christian,” has occasioned much controversy, and remains yet unsettled. His works include translations of Greek eclogues, a collection of 150 epigrams, epistles in verse and prose, 20 so-called

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idyls and other descriptive pieces, which, though admired in their day, are generally worthless, and bear all the marks of the corrupted taste prevalent in literature during his time. But though destitute of every true poetic quality, A. occasionally displays a certain neatness and grace of expression, which show that, in a better era, he might have proved a greater poet. Besides these, he also wrote a panegyric on the emperor Gratian, full of bombastic phrases and fulsome adulation. Editions of his writings have been given by Scaliger (Leyden, 1575), Tollius (Amsterdam, 1669-1671), and Souchay (Paris, 1730).

AUS'SIG, AUSSYENAD, or LABEN, a t. of Bohemia, at the junction of the Elbe and the Biela, 44 m. n.n.w. of Prague; pop. '80, 16,508. In 1426 A. was destroyed by the Hussites, and in 1639 was seized by Sweden. There is a church here which, it is claimed, was begun in 826, containing a Madonna" by Carlo Dolce. The trade of A. is in coal, fruits, mineral waters, and timber.

AUSTEN, JANE, a novelist of deservedly high reputation. Her father was rector of Steventon, Hampshire, at which place his daughter was b., Dec. 16, 1775. Mr. Austen, who was himself a gentleman of some literary attainments, bestowed on his daughter an education superior to that usually given to young ladies in her sphere of life in the end of last century. Jane was distinguished alike by good sense, sweetness of disposi tion, and personal attractions. Her novels, which are rather limited in subject, are remarkable for the truthfulness with which they portray the everyday life of the middle classes of England in her time, and for their delicate, yet withal distinct discrimination of the various shades and peculiarities of character. Sir Walter Scott said of her: "That young lady had a talent for describing the involvements, feelings, and characters of ordinary life which is to me the most wonderful I have ever met with. The big bowwow I can do myself like any one going; but the exquisite touch, which renders commonplace things and characters interesting from the truth of the description and the sentiment, is denied to me.' Miss A.'s first four novels-Sense and Sensibility, Pride and Prejudice, Mansfield Park, and Emma-were published anonymously between 1811 and 1816. Northanger Abbey and Persuasion followed, with her name on the title-page, in 1818, after her death, which took place at Winchester, July 24, 1817. See her Memoirs, by her nephew (2d ed., 1871); and her Letters to her sister (pub. 1884).

AUSTEN, WILLIAM, an English metal-worker and designer of the 15th c., celebrated as the constructor of the famous tomb of Richard de Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, in St. Mary's church, Warwickshire. Men of taste and judgment have not hesitated to put his works on an equality with those of Italian artists of the same period.

AUSTERLITZ, a small t. in Moravia, about 12 m. e.s.e. from the t. of Brünn, stands on the Littawa, and has a pop. of 3800. A. has a handsome palace; but it is celebrated chiefly as the place where Napoleon I., in Dec., 1805, defeated the combined forces of Austria and Russia, under the command of their respective emperors. The French amounted to 70,000 men; the allied armies to 95,000. In this disastrous battle-known as the "battle of the three emperors "-the Russians lost 21,000 in killed, wounded, and prisoners, the Austrians 6000, and the French 6800.

AUSTIN, ALFRED. See page 879.

AUSTIN, a co. in s.e. Texas, on both sides of the Brazos; traversed by the Houston and Texas Central railroad; 1024 sq.m.; pop. '80, 14,429-3939 colored. Timber and stock-raising are the chief resources. Co. seat, Bellville.

AUSTIN, capital of Texas and co. seat of Travis co.; on the n. bank of the Colorado river, 160 m. (direct) from its mouth, and 166 m. n.w. of Houston, in lat. 30° 16′ 25′′ n. ; long. 97° 43′ 58" w. The Houston and Texas Central, the International and Great Northern, and Austin and Northern are among the railroads passing through. Steamboats ascend to the city in winter. The place, originally called Waterloo, was in 1837 named after Stephen F. Austin (q.v.); was incorporated and made the capital of the republic of Texas in 1839, and in 1872 was made the permanent capital of the state. It has an elevation of 550 ft., and is built on terraced hills, with streets from 60 to 200 ft. wide. Capital square (20 acres) contains the capitol building, of granite, which cost $3,000,000; also the supreme court and treasury buildings. Other prominent structures are the general land office, post-office, county court-house, market-house, and masonic temple. Two bridges span the river, one built at cost of $75,000. The trade in livestock, grain, cotton, wool, hides, etc., is very large. The manufactures include iron, planed lumber, flour, tanned leather, soap, and ice. There are 3 national and 2 other banks, 17 churches, the state asylums for the insane, blind and deaf and dumb, the main branch of the state university, occupying a handsome building, Tillotson coll. and a normal school (col'd), several seminaries for young ladies and for boys, and superior schools. Nine newspapers, etc., are published. Pop. '70, 4428; '80, 11,013; '88, 24,000.

AUSTIN, JOHN, a distinguished writer on jurisprudence, was b. on Mar. 3, 1790. At the age of 16, he entered the army, and served as a subaltern with his regiment in Sicily. But he left the service after the peace, and in 1818 was called to the bar. In 1820, he married Miss Sarah Taylor, of Norwich (see AUSTIN, SARAH), and went to live in Westminster, near to Jeremy Bentham and James Mill. He was compelled by bad health to abandon his practice at the bar, about the time when the university of London

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