pacis domini regis perturbator, but also oppressor vicinorum suorum; that is, he who is guilty of B., is not only a disturber of the public peace, but a nuisance to his neighbors. The punishment for this offense is fine and imprisonment; but if the offender belongs to the profession of the law, as is too frequently the case, he may besides be disabled from practicing his profession for the future. And, indeed, it is the existing statute law of England, that if any one who has been convicted of B. shall practice as an attorney, solicitor, or agent in any suit, the court, upon complaint, shall examine the matter in a summary way; and if the fact of such conviction be proved, may direct such offending attorney, solicitor, or agent to be kept in penal servitude for not more than seven or less than three years.

Akin to this offense is another of equal malignity and mischief; namely, that of suing another in the name of a fictitious plaintiff. If committed in any of the superior courts, this offense is treated as a high contempt, punishable at discretion, and in inferior courts, by six months' imprisonment, and treble damages to the party injured.

B., in the sense above explained, is not a technical term in the law of Scotland. But in that system there is a word baratry, which is defined as the crime committed by a judge who is induced by a bribe to pronounce a judgment, or who barters justice for money.

There is also baratry of mariners, which signifies-in the law not only of England and Scotland, but also of France and other European states-the fraud of the master or mariners of a ship tending to their own advantage, but to the prejudice of the owners. Such conduct, however, is one of those risks which are usually insured against in marine policies of insurance. See INSURANCE. See Supp., page 883.

BARRE, a t. in Massachusetts, on the Ware river, 21 m. n. w. of Worcester; pop. '80, 2419. B. is a town of farms and dairies, and has important manufactures, but is notable chiefly for an institution which has been very successful in the training of feebleminded children.

BARRÉ, ISAAC, b. Dublin, 1726-1802. He was in Wolfe's army as lieut.col., was wounded in the capture of Quebec, and was with Wolfe when he died. In 1761, he was chosen to parliament, where he attracted attention by a violent personal attack upon Pitt, who led the opposition to Bute's administration. In 1765, he opposed the stamp act, supported the appeal of the colonies, and continued friendly to the Americans throughout North's administration. B. held various offices of importance, and was in parliament until 1790, when he retired in consequence of loss of sight. The authorship of the Junius letters has been attributed to him, but is not known.

BARRÉGES. See BARÉGES.

BARREL (It. barile; Fr. baril = barrique), primarily, a large vessel for holding liquids -probably from bar, in the sense of to guard, confine, contain-and then a certain measure, but varying in every locality, and almost for every liquid. In the old English measures, the barrel contained 314 gallons of wine, 32 of ale, and 36 of beer-the wine gallon itself differing from that of ale and beer. In imperial gallons, their contents would be: old wine barrel 261 gall.; ale do., 314; beer, 364. The Italian barile varies from 7 to 31 English gallons; the French barrique of Bordeaux=228 French litres = 50 English gallons. Four barriques make a tonneau. In many cases, B. signifies a certain weight or other quantity of goods usually sold in casks called barrels. In America, flour and beef are sold on the large scale in barrels: a B. of flour must contain 196 lbs.; of beef, 200 lbs. A B. of butter = 224 lbs.; of soft soap, 256 lbs.; of tar, 26 gallons.

BARREL, GUN. The relation which the barrels of small-arms bear to the stock, lock, and other parts, is described in such articles as MUSKET, PISTOL, RIFLE, REVOLVER, BREECH-LOADING ARMS, etc.; but the remarkable processes of manufacturing these barrels may be briefly noticed once for all.

The iron for all good musket-barrels contains a portion of steel, or undergoes some kind of steeling process. Horseshoe nails or stubs, after much violent usage, yield a very tough kind of iron when re-heated; and English gun-makers have been accustomed to buy such refuse on the continent; but the foreign makers now use the old nails themselves; and Birmingham has to rely mostly on various home supplies of old tough iron. The best barrels are now made in England of laminated, twisted, and Damascus steel. To prepare laminated steel, Mr. Greener, a celebrated Birmingham gunsmith, collects scraps of saws, steel-pens, files, springs, and steel-tools, from the various workshops; cuts them into small and nearly equal pieces; cleans and polishes them by revolving in a cylinder; fuses them into a semi-fluid state; gathers them into a "bloom" or mass; forges this bloom with a three-ton hammer; hardens and solidifies it with a tilt-hammer; rolls it into rods; cuts each rod into pieces 6 in. long; welds these pieces together; repeats the rolling, cutting, and welding, several times; and thus finally brings the metal into a very hard, tough, fibrous, and uniform state. Tristed steel for barrels is made by taking thin plates of iron and steel, laying them alternately one on another in a pile, welding them by heat and hammering, and twisting them by very powerful mechanical agency, until there are twelve or fourteen complete turns to an inch; the length becomes reduced one half, and the thickness doubled by this twisting. Damascus steel barrels are made of steel which has undergone a still further series of welding and twisting opera

tions.

Stub Damascus barrels are made of a mixture of old files with old horse-nails; the files are heated, cooled in water, broken with hammers, and pounded in a mortar into small fragments; three parts of these fragments are mixed with five of stub; and the mixture is fused, forged, rolled, and twisted. An inferior kind of Damascus-twist is made by interlaying scraps of sheet-iron with charcoal, and producing an appearance of twist, but without the proper qualities. Threepenny-skelp and twopenny-skelp are inferior kinds of barrel-iron; and the worst of all is sham-dam skelp, of which gun-barrels are made for hawking at a cheap price at country-fairs, and for barter with the natives in Africa and the backwoods and prairies of America.

The gun-barrel manufacture of England is now almost wholly conducted at Birming. ham and at Enfield, very few barrels being made elsewhere. The best barrels are all twisted into form. The skelps, or long strips of prepared steel, are twisted into a close spiral a few inches long; several of these spirals are welded end to end; and the fissures are closed up by heating and hammering. The rough barrel, with a core or mandril tem. porarily thrust in it, is placed in a groove, and hammered cold until the metal becomes very dense, close, strong, and elastic. The interior is then bored truly cylindrical by a nicely-adjusted rotating cutting-tool. If, on narrow inspection, the interior is found to be straight and regular, the exterior is then ground on a rapidly revolving stone, and finally turned in a lathe. Commoner barrels are not twisted: the skelps are heated, laid in a semi-cylindrical groove, hammered till they assume the form of that groove, placed two and two together, and heated and hammered until one B. is made from the two halves. See PROOF OF FIRE-ARMS; and RIFLED ARMS.

Common barrels are browned externally with some kind of chemical stain; but the best are rubbed with fine files, and polished with steel burnishers.

BARREL-BULK, a term denoting a measurement of 5 cubic ft., used chiefly in the coasting-trade.

BARREL-MAKING MACHINERY. The saw for cutting staves is a cylindrical sheet, having teeth upon one end; the blocks of wood are clamped in the usual manner, and the staves fall within the cylinder. They are then laid upon an endless conveyer, which carries them against two circular saws that cut them à definite length. Each piece is then placed in a pair of clamps, and moved against a rotary wheel provided with cutters, that dress the edge to the required bilge and bevel; the bilge is the increased width midway between the ends, which causes the enlarged diameter of the cask at the middle; the bevel is the angle given to the edge conforming to the radius of the cask. The surface of the stave is smoothed by passing it under revolving cutters; a late form of machine takes off the surplus wood from riven staves without cutting across the grain, following winding or crooked pieces as they are split from the block. The heads are usually made of several flat pieces jointed and fastened with dowels, or pins of wood. The edge of each piece is pushed against the side of a rotary disk, provided with cutters that instantly straighten it; it is then pushed against bits that bore holes for the pins to be afterwards inserted by hand. Several boards being pinned together, enough to make a head, the whole is first smoothed on one side and dressed to a uniform thickness; then it is clamped between two disks, and as these disks turn, a saw trims the head into a circle with a beveled edge; if the wood is green, an oval form may be given to provide against shrinking.

The barrel has next to be "set up." A sufficient number of staves are set into a frame, their edges refitted if necessary; stout iron hoops, called "truss hoops," pushed up from below grasp the lower ends tightly, and the whole may be lifted from the mold. One end of the barrel is formed, but the other is open and flaring. A rope is passed about the open end and taken to a windlass, and the staves are drawn together by tightening the rope; in this stage the barrel is heated to cause the staves to yield more easily to their required form. The barrel is now leveled by placing it upon a horizontal bed and bringing down upon it a powerful disk that presses upon its ends and forces the staves into their proper position. A machine is devised which trusses and levels the barrel at a single movement. The slack barrel stands in its truss hoops, two on each end; those of the lower end rest on strong supports; those of the upper end are seized by hooks whose handles pass down through the platform to a common lever; when all the parts are in place, powerful machinery pulls the upper trusses down, at once driving the barrel into the lower trusses, drawing together both ends, and leveling the whole. Each end of the shell, thus made, passes under a rotary cutter which forms a croze, or groove, to receive the head, and chamfers, or bevels, the ends of the staves. The heads are put in, and the hoops set by hand. The barrel is then made to turn under a smoothing tool and rapidly finished.

BARREL-ORGAN, an organ (q.v.) in which the music is produced by a barrel or cylinder, set with pins and staples, which, when driven round by the hand, opens the valves for admitting the wind to the pipes according to the notes of the music. The number of tunes that any one instrument can play is, of course, very limited. Barrelorgans are generally portable, and mostly used by street-musicians. Å street-organ costs from £30 to £70, according to size. The most perfect barrel-organs are those which are driven by a motive-power, of which the best are made in Vienna, and cost from £100 to

249

Barrier.

£300. The orchestrion, made by Kaufmann in Dresden, is a large self-acting barrel

organ.

BARREN, a co. in s. Kentucky; 500 sq. m.; pop. '70, 17,780-3623 colored; the soil is fertile, producing cereals and tobacco. Co. seat, Glasgow. The name comes from "barrens," applied to large tracts that are sparsely timbered. Pop. '80, 22,321-4941 colored.

BARRETT, BENJAMIN FISK, b. Me., 1808; a graduate of Bowdoin, and of Cam bridge divinity school; pastor of the First New church (Swedenborgian) of New York, 1840-48, and in Cincinnati, 1848-50; subsequently over a Philadelphia society. His works are Life of Swedenborg, Lectures on the New Dispensation, Letters on the Divine Trinity, The Golden Reed, A New View of Hell, etc.

BARRETT, EDWARD, Commodore. See page 883.

BARRETT, LAWRENCE PATRICK. See page 883.

BARRHEAD, a t. of recent growth, in the e. part of Renfrewshire, 6 m. s. w. of Glasgow. It has cotton-mills, and bleaching and print works. Pop. '81, 7495. BARRI, GIRALDE. See GIRALDUS CAMBRENSIS.

BARRICADES are defense-works employed both in the military and naval services. Military engineers, and sappers and miners, are instructed in the art of barricading streets and roads with beams, chains, chevaux-de-frise, and other obstacles, either in defending a town against besiegers, or in suppressing popular tumults. In a ship, a strong wooden rail, supported on stanchions, and extending across the foremost part of the quarter-deck, is called a barricade; during a naval action, the upper part of this barricade is sometimes stuffed with hammocks in a double rope-netting, to serve as a screen against the enemy's small-shot. B. have been made use of in street-fights since the middle ages, but they are best known in connection with the insurrections in the city of Paris. As early as 1358, the streets of Paris were barricaded against the dauphin, afterwards Charles V. A more noteworthy barricade-fight was that in 1588, when 4000 Swiss soldiers, marched into Paris by Henry III. to overawe the council of sixteen. would have been utterly destroyed by the populace, firing from behind B., had the court not consented to negotiation; and the result was, that the king fled next day. The next barricade-fight of importance in Paris was that of 1830, which resulted in the expulsion of the Bourbons from the throne of France, and the election of the citizen king, Louis Philippe. During the three days which this revolution lasted, the number of B. erected across the streets amounted to several thousands. They were formed of the most heterogeneous materials-overturned vehicles, trees, scaffolding poles, planks, building-materials, and street paving-stones, men, women, and children taking part in their erection. In Feb., 1848, the insurrection against Louis Philippe commenced with the erection of B.; but the most celebrated and bloody barricade-fight was that between the populace and the provisional government, which, commencing on the night of the 23d June, 1848, lasted throughout the three following days, when the people had to surrender. The national losses by this fight were estimated at 30,000,000 francs; 16,000 persons were killed and wounded, and 8000 taken prisoners. The emperor Napoleon III. so widened and macadamized the principal streets of Paris after he ascended the throne, as to render the successful erection of B. next to impossible. There was a remarkable barricade-erection in London in 1821. The ministry desired that the body of queen Caroline should be conveyed out of the country to Germany, for interment, without the populace having the opportunity of making any demonstration. On the matter becoming known, a vast barricade was erected at the point where the Hampstead road joins the New road; and as nothing but the use of artillery could have forced the way, the officer in charge of the funeral cortege deemed it prudent to change his course, and pass through a more central part of the metropolis. During the revolutions of 1848, B. were successfully carried in Paris, Berlin, Vienna, and other places, by abandoning the attack in front, and breaking through the houses of contiguous streets, taking their defenders in the rear. See illus., FORTIFICATION, vol. VI., p. 158, fig. 43.

BARRIE, a t. in Canada, capital of Simcoe co., 60 m. n.n.w. of Toronto, at the w. end of lake Simcoe. It has manufactories of woolen goods; pop. '81, 4854.

BARRIER ACT, the name commonly given to an act of the general assembly of the church of Scotland, 8th Jan., 1697, intended as a barrier against innovations, and a hindrance to hasty legislation. It provides that no change can be made in the laws of the church without being submitted, by that general assembly which first approves it, to the consideration of all the presbyteries, and approved by a majority of them; after which it still remains to be considered by the next general assembly, which then may or may not pass it into a law. The B. A. is regarded as of the greatest importance, both in the established church of Scotland and in the Free church. Analogous regulations have been adopted by other Presbyterian churches.

BARRIER REEF, an immense coral-reef extending along the n.e. coast of Australia for nearly 1300 m., at a distance from the shore of from 10 to upwards of 100 miles. The reef is, in general, precipitous, and in many places rises out of great depths, lines of 280 fathoms having failed to reach the bottom on the outer side. Formerly, ignorance of anything like its precise extent and character led to many shipwrecks, but within the last thirty years it has been surveyed, and pretty accurately laid down on charts. In the course of its length there are several breaks or passages in it. In the voyage from Sydney to Torres strait, the inner route is usually taken. It is narrow,

Barristers.

and requires delicate steering; but it is safe, and not so much exposed as the outer route, which enters Torres strait by Flinders entrance.

BARRING OUT, a practice formerly very common in schools, but now almost, if not altogether, abandoned. It consisted in the scholars taking possession of the school, and fastening the doors against the master, at whose helplessness they scoffed from the windows. The usual time for B. O. was immediately prior to the periodical vacation. It seems to have been an understood rule in B. O., that if the scholars could sustain a siege against the master for three days, they were entitled to dictate terms to him regarding the number of holidays, hours of recreation, etc., for the ensuing year. If, on the other hand, the master succeeded in forcing an entry before the expiry of that period, the insurgents were entirely at his mercy. The masters, in most cases, appear to have acquiesced good-humoredly in the custom; but some chafed at it, and exerted their strength and their ingenuity to storm or surprise the garrison. Addison is said to have been the chief actor in a B. O. of the master of Lichfield. One remarkable and fatal case of B. O. occurred at the high school, Edinburgh, in Sept., 1595. The scholars had to complain of an abridgment of their usual holidays by the town-council, who, on being remonstrated with, refused, even though the claim was supported by the master, to grant more than three of the eight days which the boys demanded as their privilege. They, accordingly, took advantage of the master's temporary absence to lay in a store of provisions, and having done so, they barricaded the doors. The magistrates, the patrons of the school, in vain sought admission, the boys saying they would treat with their master only; and after a day and night had passed, it was resolved to force an entrance. The result was, that one of them, Bailie Macmoran, was shot dead on the spot by a scholar named Sinclair. The scholars of Witton school, Cheshire, were directed by the statutes drawn up by the founder, Sir John Deane, to observe the practice: "To the end that the schollars have not any evil opinion of the schoolmaster, nor the schoolmaster should not mistake the schollars for requiring of customs and orders, I will that upon Thursdays and Saturdays in the afternoons, and upon holydays, they refresh themselves-and a week before Christmas and Easter, according to the old custom, they bar and keep forth the school the schoolmaster, in such sort as other schollars do in great schools." This school was founded in 1558. See Brand's Popular Antiquities, Chambers's Domestic Annals, and Carlisle's Endowed Grammar Schools.

BARRINGTON, DAINES, 1727-1800; third son of John Shute; antiquary and natu ralist. He followed the law, and wrote Observations on the Statutes from Magna Charta to 21st James I., being a Proposal for Remodeling them," a work of high reputation. In 1771, he published Orosius in English, with king Alfred's Saxon version; and two years later, Tracts on the Probability of Reaching the North Pole. Among his most curious produc tions is Experiments and Observations on the Singing and Language of Birds.

BARRINGTONIA CEÆ, a natural order of exogenous trees and shrubs, natives of tropical countries, and generally very beautiful both in foliage and flowers. Few plants, indeed, exceed some of them in beauty. The stamens are very numerous, and form a very conspicuous part of the flower. The fruit is fleshy, with bony seeds lodged in pulp. That of some species is eaten, as careya arborea, an Indian tree, the stringy bark of which is used in the countries along the foot of the Himalayas as a slow-match for matchlock guns. Humboldt and Bonpland mention that children become quite yellow after eating the fruit of an American species, gustavia speciosa, of which, however, they are very fond; but that this color disappears in a day or two. The MOORDILLA (barringtonia speciosa) is described by Sir J. E. Tennent as a tree which much attracts the attention of travelers in Ceylon. It has dark, glossy leaves, and delicate crimson-tipped white flowers. The stamens, of which there are nearly 100 to each flower, when they fall to the ground, might almost be mistaken for painters' brushes." include this order in myrtacea (q.v.).

66

Some botanists

BARRISTERS, or BARRASTERS, as sometimes spelt in old books. This is the distinctive name by which the advocates or pleaders at the English and Irish bars are known; and thus its derivation is perhaps sufficiently accounted for. They are admitted to their office under the rules and regulations of the INNS OF COURT (q.v.), and they are entitled to exclusive audience in all the superior courts of law and equity, and generally in all courts, civil and criminal, presided over by a superior judge. In the whole of the county courts, attorneys are allowed to practice without the assistance of counsel; also at petty sessions, though at the quarter sessions where four counsel attend, the justices always give them exclusive audience. In Scotland, the same body are styled ADVOCATES (q.v.), and they have the same exclusive privileges that B. enjoy in England and Ireland. These Scotch advocates, however, are members of the faculty of advocates, or Scotch bar, properly so called, and are not to be confounded with the advocates who practice under that name in the town and county of Aberdeen, and who, as explained in a former article, are merely country attorneys. See ATTORNEYS AND SOLICITORS: LAWYERS.

Barristers were first styled apprentices, who answered to the bachelors of the universities, as the state and degree of a sergeant did to that of a doctor. These apprentices or barristers seem to have been first appointed by an ordinance of king Edward I. in parlia

1

Barristers.

ment, in the twentieth year of his reign (Stephen's Commentaries, vol. i. p. 17, and authorities there referred to). Of barristers, there are various ranks and degrees, and among each other they take precedence accordingly; the general name, "counsel," being, in the practice of the court, common to them all. But they may be divided into two leading groups-barristers and queen's counsel. The ancient order of sergeants-at-law, formerly a well-marked third group, was distinguished by the coif and other peculiarities, but has now ceased to exist. See SERGEANT-AT-LAW. Barristers simply or utter barristers, who occupy the position of junior counsel, wearing plain stuff-gown and a short wig; queen's counsel, or her majesty's counsel learned in the law, as they are more formally called, are selected either from the outer or junior bar, or from the sergeants. They may be described as the ordinary leaders of the bar, and are distinguished by a silk gown, and on state-occasions, and always in the house of lords, they wear a full-bottomed wig. For further details, see QUEEN'S COUNSEL. Besides these three orders or gradations of rank at the English bar, the crown sometimes grants letters patent of precedence to such barristers as her majesty may think proper to honor with that mark of distinction, whereby they are entitled to such rank and pre-audience as are assigned to them in their respective patents. See PRECEDENCE.

Thus constituted, the English bar perform their functions, enjoying many professional privileges and immunities, and a high social position. As we have before stated, they have exclusive audience in all the superior courts, where upon terms and conditions, and according to an etiquette, which are all well understood by attorneys or solicitors, they take upon themselves the protection and defense of any suitor, whether plaintiff or defendant. With the brief (q.v.) or other instructions, by means of which their professional services are retained, B. receive a fee, or such fee is indorsed on the brief or instructions, and afterwards paid. Such, generally, is the existing practice at the English bar, differing in this respect from the practice of the bar in Scotland-and, we believe, to a great extent in Ireland also--where pre-payment of the fee is the rigid etiquette. The amount of this fee in England depends, of course, on the nature of the business to be done, the time to be occupied, and the labor to be bestowed; and it is usually, especially in the case of leading counsel, a liberal sum. The barrister's fee, however, is not a matter of express contract or stipulation, recoverable at law like an attorney's bill of costs, but is regarded as a mere honorary reward-quiddam honorarium, as it is called in law-books. There is, therefore, no means of enforcing its payment, and indeed, in this respect, the barrister has nothing to rely upon but the honor and good faith of those who employ him. Where, however, it can be proved that the client or party gave money to the solicitor or attorney, with which to fee the counsel, the latter may maintain an action against the former for the amount in some special cases.

In order to encourage due freedom of speech in the lawful defense of their clients, and, at the same time, to give a check to unseemly licentiousness, it has been held that a counsel is not answerable for any matter by him spoken, relative to the cause in hand, and suggested in his client's instructions, although it should reflect upon the reputation of another, and even prove absolutely groundless; but if he mentions an untruth of his own invention, or even upon instructions, if it be impertinent to the cause in hand, he is then liable to an action from the party injured; and counsel guilty of deceit or collu. sion are punishable by the statute Westm. I. (3 Edw. I., c. 28) with imprisonment for a year and a day, and perpetual silence in the courts-a punishment which may be inflicted for gross misdemeanors in practice, although the course usually resorted to is for the benchers of the inn of court, to which the person so offending belongs, to disbar him. See Stephen's Commentary, and Ker's Blackstone, and see BENCHERS and DISBAR.

But besides advocacy and forensic disputation, B. in England have other business to which they have extended their practice, to the great advantage of the public. This additional practice consists in advising on the law by their opinion on a case stated, by means of which harassing and fruitless litigation is often prevented (see OPINION OF COUNSEL); in drawing or preparing the pleadings or statement of facts on which an action or suit is founded (see PLEADING); and in preparing the drafts or scrolls of legal instru ments, indentures, deeds, contracts, or other conveyances. See CONVEYANCING and CONVEYANCER. As a correlative privilege of the position in which they stand in respect of their fees, barristers are not personally liable for the injurious consequences of any erroneous advice they may give; and they claim absolute control over the conduct of all litigation in which they may be engaged, even to withdrawing it from court, unless the client expressly dissent; and until lately, it was the opinion of the profession that counsel might at any time, during the progress of a cause, compromise the matter in dispute; but the exercise of such discretion was successfully opposed in a recent_case, and it is now admitted that B. have no ex officio privilege beyond the guidance and conduct of actual litigation in court.

It is from the body of B. that all the judges in England, superior and inferior, are appointed; and B. are also always chosen for the office of paid magistrate. The only exception to the exclusive appointment of B. to judicial offices, is the case of justices at petty and quarter sessions, chiefly a criminal jurisdiction, but which works well in practice, and has many claims to consideration. See QUARTER SESSIONS.

*But the publication of the counsel's statement by a third party may expose such third party to an

action.