and drivers would be added till the total strength of the battery became 277. Two batteries together form the command of a lieut.col., and have the services of a veterinary surgeon between them.

The matériel of a 12-pounder B. of 6 guns comprises 6 carriages for the guns, 1 spare gun-carriage, 3 store-wagons, 1 store-cart, 1 forge-wagon, 1 rocket-wagon, 12 gun-ammunition wagons, and 6 wagons for small-arms ammunition for the use of the infantry. To draw these guns and vehicles are required in war about 212 horses, together with 35 saddle-horses, and 8 baggage-horses. The vehicles and boxes are prepared for the recep tion of 1284 rounds of ammunition for the guns, 150 rockets, and 98,280 rifle cartridges. There is also carried a supply of empty cartridges, port-fires, fuses, quick match, slow match, and an immense number of tools and small articles, besides stores for the wheelers, shoeing-smiths, and collar-makers. Nearly all these supplies are equally divided, so as to make each independent of the others; but some of the stores are in reserve, for the use of the whole battery.

A B., in fortification, is a row of large guns of any number from 2 to 20 or upwards, mounted on an earthwork or other platform. It differs from an artillery or field B. in having no horses or vehicles immediately belonging to it. Siege-guns are mostly placed in or on such batteries; and when an army is preparing to resist the occupation of a particular place by an enemy, a B. of position is frequently one of the defensive means adopted. On the other hand, the fortifications on and within the walls of a stronghold generally obtain other names than that of B.; although particular rows of guns in certain places may be so called. Military engineers distinguish many different kinds of batteries, according to the nature of the duty which they are to fulfill, or of the ground on which they are placed. An elevated B. has the parapet raised above the ground; the earth for forming it being obtained from a ditch in front. A half-sunken B. has the interior slope sunk a little below the surface. A sunken B. has the base from 24 to 42 in. below the level of the ground. The guns mounted on these three kinds of batteries partake in the varying elevations of the batteries themselves, and are adapted to different modes of firing on the enemy. A siege B. consists of a range of heavy guns, for silencing the enemy's fire, ruining parapets and buildings, and making a breach through which infantry may enter. A cavalier B. is especially elevated, to fire over a parapet without embrasures. In the Moncrieff B., the gun is mounted so as to fire over a parapet 10 ft. high, the recoil causing it to descend after the shot. Enfilade, en revers, en écharpe, ricochet, cross, oblique, etc., batteries differ chiefly in the direction in which they pour out their fire. The distinction between gun-batteries, howitzer-batteries, and mortar-batteries, depends on the kind of ordnance employed. A mortar B. has a ditch of extra width, to afford spare earth for a platform of extra strength and solidity. A military engineer, in planning a B., makes his calculations in such form that the quantity of earth taken out at one spot may about equal that heaped up in another.

These batteries are all nearly alike in the general principle of their construction. They consist primarily of an épaulement, or built-up shelter, behind which the guns are placed; the platform on which the guns actually rest may or may not be above the ordinary level of the ground, according to the nature of the battery. The épaulement or parapet is of immense thickness, to resist the action of the enemy's cannon balls. The thickness at the top is seldom less than 12 ft., and may be as much as 20; for it is found that a 24-pounder ball will penetrate 18 ft. of earth. The guns are placed about 20 ft. apart, behind the parapet. Some batteries are straight, with all the guns parallel; while others may be portions of a triangle (redan) or a polygon, and the earthwork has to be constructed accordingly. There is generally a ditch from 12 to 20 ft. wide, outside the earthwork; and the depth from the crest of the parapet to the bottom of the ditch is 12 to 16 feet. For gun and howitzer batteries, there are embrasures through which the firing takes place; but mortar batteries are without those openings.

Sometimes the épaulement is thrown up loosely, in haste; but for the better kinds of batteries, fascines, gabions, and sand-bags are largely employed. The main structure is lined with fascines 9 ft. long, and the embrasures lined with other fascines 18 ft. long40 or 50 of the two kinds being required per gun. The fascines here spoken of are long bundles of brush-wood, weighing 30 to 200 lbs. each. Sometimes sand-bags are used instead of fascines, each containing about a bushel of sand or earth; and sometimes gabions, which are wicker cylinders filled with earth. A 6-gun sand-bag B., made wholly of these materials, requires nearly 8000 sand-bags.

The fate of a field B. often decides a battle. At the battle of the Alma, when once the guards and highlanders had reached the Russian batteries on the hill, the day was won. At the battle of Inkermann, the issue depended mainly on the possession of a small 2-gun sand-bag B., which remained, after many vicissitudes, in the hands of the allies. BATTERY, FLOATING. See FLOATING BATTERY.

BATTERY, ELECTRIC and GALVANIC. See ELECTRICITY and GALVANISM. BATTHYAN YI, one of the oldest, richest, and most celebrated families of the Hungarian magnates, which can trace its origin as far back as the invasion of Pannonia by the Magyars, in 884 A.D., and which has given to Hungary many warriors and statesmen. The surname is derived from lands obtained in the 14th c.-Balthasar von B., who was the head of the family in the latter half of the 16th c., fought with distinction in the

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Turkish wars, and constantly maintained at his own expense 1200 infantry and 500 cav. alry.-Charles, prince of B., a lieut.-field-marshal of the empire, distinguished himself in the Bavarian war of succession, and particularly by a victory over the French and Bavarians at Pfaffenhofen on 15th April, 1745.-Count Casimir B., a member of the principal branch of the family, was b. 4th June, 1807. He was minister of foreign affairs in Hungary during the insurrection in 1849, in which he also distinguished himself as a military governor. After the catastrophe of Vilagos, he fled, along with Kos suth, into the Turkish territory, where he remained till 1851. He then went to France, and d. at Paris, 13th July, 1854. Count Louis B., belonging to another branch of the same family, and b. at Presburg in 1809, having espoused the national cause, yet seek. ing to maintain the connection with Austria and his allegiance to the Austrian sovereign, was appointed president of the ministry, when Hungary obtained a ministry of its own, in Mar. 1848. His ability was not equal to the goodness of his intentions, and the circumstances in which he was called to act were very difficult and embarrassing. He did not hold the office long, and afterwards took part in public affairs, chiefly as a member of the diet, and with great moderation. Yet, after the Austrians entered Pesth, he was arrested in Jan. 1849, and on 6th Oct. was executed by sentence of martial law. His condemnation was unexpected, and awakened the more sympathy, because all men regarded it as unjust.-A prince B. occupied recently a prominent position on the turf, winning the Derby of 1876. He d. 1883.

BATTICALO'A, a t. in the eastern province of Ceylon, on an island, 7° 44′ n., 81° 52′ e.; pop. 3353. It is important for its haven and adjacent salt lagoons. There is a fort, and a small English settlement. Pop. of the district, 93,220.

BATTLE, a t. in e. Sussex, 8 m. n.w. of Hastings, where the country rises in wooded swells. It consists of one street, built along a valley extending from n. w. to s.e. Pop. '81, 5388. It was noted for its manufacture of gunpowder, well known to sportsmen as B. powder. It was anciently called Hetheland or Epiton, and derives its present name from the battle (usually called the battle of Hastings), fought on the heath between it and Hastings, on 14th Oct. 1066, when the Normans, under William the conqueror, final overthrew the Saxon dynasty in England. William, to commemorate his victory, founded in 1067, on the spot where Harold's standard was taken, a splendid abbey, which was endowed with all the land within a league of it. The abbey had the privileges of a sanctuary, and the conqueror's sword and a roll of his barons were depos ited in it. The existing ruins, which belong to a building erected after the original abbey, occupy 3 sides of a quadrangle, and are a mile in circumference.

BATTLE is a combat between large masses of troops, or whole armies. Every B. ought to have for its object the determination, if possible, of the whole contest, or at least the effecting of some important step to that end. It is therefore the aim of a general to bring about an engagement at the decisive point. This constitutes strategy, while tactic is concerned with the handling of the troops in the actual battle. Victory on the battle-field is not enough for a general; it is only by following up his victory to the annihilation, if possible, of the beaten army, that its fruits are secured. ORDER OF BATTLE is the particular way in which the several corps of different arms are disposed for entering into an engagement. It varies at different times, and is modified according to locality.

No general account of a B. can be given. Information on the various elements of which a B. consists will be found described under such heads as ATTACK, ARTILLERY, CAVALRY, INFANTRY, CHARGE, FLEET, GUNNERY, TACTICS, etc. The more important individual battles will be found described, in their causes and results, under the names of the places with which they are associated.

Considered in their political relations, the importance of battles is not always in proportion to their magnitude. "There are some battles which claim our attention, independently of the moral worth of the combatants, on account of their enduring importance, and by reason of their practical influence on our own social and political condition, which we can trace up to the results of those engagements. They have for us an actual and abiding interest, both while we investigate the chain of causes and effects, by which they have helped to make us what we are; and also while we speculate on what we probably should have been, if any one of those battles had come to a different termination."-Prof. Creasy's Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World, from Marathon to Waterloo. The fifteen battles which, in prof. Creasy's opinion, have had the most decisive influence, are (since Waterloo, Königgrätz or Sadowa, and Sedan, have been the most decisive):

BATTLE, WAGER OF. See BATTEL.

BATTLE-AXE was a weapon much used by the early northern nations, Celtic and Scandinavian, requiring great strength in its use. Some were held with one hand, some with two; the former kind could be wielded equally by horse and foot, but the latter was for foot-soldiers only. The B. had a longer handle, and a broader, stronger, and sharper blade than the common axe. During the middle ages, and somewhat earlier, it was much used in sorties, and to prevent the escalading of a besieged fortress. The pole-are differed but little from the battle-axe. The black bill and brown bill were a sort of halbert, having the cutting part hooked like a woodman's bill, with a spike projecting from the back, and another from the head. The glaive was a kind of pole-axe or bill used by the Welsh.

BATTLE CREEK, a city in Calhoun co., Mich., on Kalamazoo river, at the crossing of the Michigan Central and the Peninsular division of the Chicago and Lake Huron railroads; 121 m. w. of Detroit; pop. 5323; in '80, 7592. There are manufactures of flour, woolens, etc., and in the neighborhood are quarries of superior sandstone.

BATTLEMENT, a notched or indented parapet used in fortifications. The rising parts are called cops or merlons; the spaces by which they are separated, crenels, embrasures, and sometimes loops. The object of the device is to enable the soldier to shelter himself behind the merlon, whilst he shoots through the embrasure. The basreliefs of Nineveh, and the Egyptian paintings, testify to its antiquity, and there is perhaps no nation by which it has not been adopted.

BATTLE OF THE SPURS, the first important conflict between the burghers and the nobles at Courtrai, in 1302, the French nobility being utterly defeated. They rushed forward with loose reins and fell into a great ditch; their army was annihilated, and among the spoils were 4000 spurs of gold.

BATTLE-PIECES are paintings representing battles. The modern mode of warfare is less favorable for this branch of art than the ancient, where personal valor had more room to display itself. Among the greatest paintings of this kind are the battle of Constantine, sketched by Raphael, and executed by Giulio Romano; Lebrun's battles of Alexander; and the battle of the Amazons by Rubens. In smaller scenes, such as skirmishes and surprises, Antonio Tempesta, Hans Snelink, Pet. Snyders, Fulcone, Phil. Wouverman, etc., are distinguished. The most eminent of recent battle-painters is Horace Vernet.

BATTUE (from Fr. battre, to beat). The B. is a method of killing game on a great scale, by causing animals to be driven forward to a point where a number of shooters are waiting to shoot them. The driving is effected by beating the bushes; hence the term battue. This term, like the practice which it imports, is only of modern date; yet a plan of killing deer by driving them forward in herds in an ever-narrowing circle to a place where they are to be shot, is an old usage in the Highlands, where it is called the linchel. The B. is at best a commonplace and butcherly amusement, for it can scarcely be said to have the merit of being attended with even a reasonable degree of exercise and excitement. It is practiced chiefly in extensive preserves of pheasants and hares during the autumn and winter months, when country gentlemen invite acquaintances to their mansions for the sake of field-sports. The B. takes place early in the day, and with good arrangements it is attended with neither fatigue nor danger. The number of shooters is usually eight or ten, each provided with at least two guns, which are loaded by an assistant as quickly as they are discharged. When the shooters are stationed at safe distances from each other, and ready to commence work, the beaters begin theirs by driving the game before them. Sometimes, however, pheasants will run a long way before rising on wing, and to make them take to flight on approaching the guns, a low net is stretched across their path. It should be stated, however, that in the B., hares, rabbits, etc., are shot as readily as pheasants; and at length the ground is covered with slain, like a field of battle. By means of the B., large quantities of game are killed, and sent to market; the profits derived from this species of stock on some estates amounting to no inconsiderable sum annually. For an account of battue shooting, we refer to The Shot-gun and Sporting Rifle, also Stonehenge's British Rural Sports (Lon don, 1875).

BATTUS, founder of the Greek colony of Cyrene, in Libya, directed there by the Delphic oracle, about 650 B.C. He ruled 40 years and was succeeded by his son B. II., called "the prosperous," under whom the colony rapidly increased, land being given free to immigrants from Greece. The next of the Battiada on record was Arcesilaus II., about 554-44 B.C., who was defeated by the revolted Libyans, and strangled by his brother Learchus. The next heir, B. III., was lame; Demonax of Mantinea was the real ruler. The wife and son of the lame king, however, recovered the sovereignty, but the son, Arcesilaus III., was slain by fugitives from Cyrene while hiding from vengeance in Barca. The mother made war upon Barca and perpetrated great cruelties in revenge for the death of her son, but she soon after died miserably in Egypt. There followed a B. IV., and soon Arcesilaus IV., with whom the dynasty ended. The latter won a victory in chariot racing during the Pythian games, and was eulogized by Pindar

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BATUM', or BATOUM', formerly a Turkish fortified city, now a Russian port on the eastern shores of the Black sea. The Berlin congress of 1878, in sanctioning the cession of B. to Russia, stipulated that it should not be made into a naval station, but should remain an essentially commercial port. The harbor is one of the best on the e. coast of the Black sea A pretty extensive trade is carried on. Hides, wax, honey, and, above all, oak for ship building, are the principal exports. B. has about 10,000 inhabitants, mostly Greeks and Armenians. Great ruins of Greek churches and other buildings are found in the neighborhood.

BATURIN, a t. of Russia, in the government of, and 78 m. e. from, the city of Tchernigov, on the Seim. It was founded by Stephen Bathory, king of Poland, and was at one time the favorite residence of the hetmans of the Cossacks, of whom Mazeppa. who, in 1708, sold himself to the Swedes, is the most notorious. The palace of the hetmans with its once beautiful grounds, is now going rapidly to decay.

BATUTA, IBN (MOHAMMED-IBN-ABDALLAH), 1302-78; a Moor who traveled exten sively in Asia and the eastern islands, Africa, and Spain. He wrote full observations, but only extracts or epitomes have been preserved.

BAUD, a t. of the dep. of Morbihan, France, situated on the Evel, 20 m. n.w. from Vannes. Pop. '81, 2000. B. has some trade in grain, cattle, hemp, butter, and honey. Near B. is a statue of granite, known as the "Venus of Quinipily," worthless as a work of art, but remarkable on account of its history. Its origin is unknown, but it is supposed, from its Egyptian character, to be a Gallic Isis. Down to the 17th c., it was worshiped with foul rites, and even now is regarded with superstitious veneration by the peasantry. It appears to have been first called Venus in inscriptions on the pedestal set up in 1689.

BAU DEKYN, a corruption of Baldachin (q.v.).

BAUDELAIRE, CHARLES, 1821-67; a French poet, one of the curious class now known as Bohemians." Some of his writings are gross, while some, especially his little poems, are very beautiful; but nearly all are in the romantic, or rather ecstatic, vein of affectation peculiar to writers of intolerable egotism. The only work of B.'s which has a living power is his translation of the writings of Edgar Allan Poe, which is pronounced one of the most brilliant and faithful translations of the age.

BAUDELOCQUE, JEAN LOUIS, 1746-1810; a French surgeon, especially devoted to obstetrics, in which he gained great reputation. He was one of the earliest to use for ceps in difficult parturition. Napoleon selected B. to attend on the confinement of Maria Louisa.

BAUDET, PAUL. See page 885.

BAUDRY, PAUL JACQUES AIMÉ. See page 885.

BAUDRILLART, HENRI JOSEPH LÉON, b. Paris, 1821; a political economist and author, editor of the Journal des Economistes, and connected with Des Debats, being sonin-law of the editor. In 1866, he was appointed professor of history and political economy in the college of France. He has written many works, chiefly upon his favorite themes of political economy.

BAUER, BERNARD, of a Jewish family, b. Hungary, 1829; served in the French army and became a convert to Roman Catholicism, joining the Carmelites. He was chaplain at the Tuileries, and a special favorite of the empress Eugenie. During the siege of Paris he was chaplain of the ambulances of the press. His lectures and some political pamphlets are published.

BAU'ER, BRUNO, a celebrated biblical critic and philosopher, belonging to the extreme school of German rationalism, was b. at Eisenberg, in the duchy of Saxe-Altenburg, on the 6th Sept. 1809. He was the son of a porcelain-painter, and studied at the university of Berlin, where he became doctor of theology in 1834. From this period Bauer devoted himself exclusively to what is termed in Germany the scientific criticism of Scripturethat is to say, a criticism based on the conviction that the contents of the Bible have a natural, and not a supernatural origin, and ought to be subjected to the same process of philosophical analysis as other human productions are. In 1839, B. became a privat docent in the university of Bonn. but in 1842 was forbidden to deliver any more theological lectures. He then removed to Berlin, where he afterward resided. Bauer passed through various stages of anti-supernaturalism. At first, he contented himself with believing that the substance of the Christian religion might be extricated from the entanglements of a confused and erroneous system of interpretation. Such is the idea that runs through his earliest works, his Criticism of Strauss's Life of Jesus, published in the Berlin Year-book of Scientific Criticism (1835-36), his Journal of Speculative Theology (1836-38), and his Critical Exposition of the Religion of the Old Testament (Berlin, 1838). He soon, however, advanced so far in his "scientific" demands, that it became quite clear the Scriptures, in his eyes, had lost even the moderate authority which he originally supposed them to possess. To this period belong his Doctor Hengstenberg, (Berlin, 1839), and The Ecangelical Church of Prussia and Science (Leip. 1840). In the former of these works, B. appears as an opponent of the school of apologetic theologians, and exposes what he conceives to be the weakness of their system as a method of apprehending characteristic differences in the historical development of Christian doctrine; in the latter, he wished to prove that true philosophic union is the dissolution of the outward dogmatic

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church in the realm of the universal and free self-consciousness-language which is not very intelligible to the finite Anglo-Saxon mind. In his Critique of the Evangelical History of John (Brem. 1840), and Critique of the Evangelical Synopticists (Leip. 1840), he attempted to show that the so-called facts of the gospel never really had a historical existence, and that those artistic compositions which we term the gospels, were simply the product of the human self-consciousness. B. considers Strauss, a mere apologetical theologian, a comparatively orthodox writer! and regards his conclusions with the supercilious contempt of one who has reached a far higher elevation, while he conceives that his own special work in this world has been to strike off the last head of the hydra of the tradition-hypothesis The persecutions to which he was now subjected brought about a complete rupture between him and the church, the consequence of which was a brochure entitled The Question of Liberty, and my own Private Affairs (Zurich, 1843). Then followed his Christianity Unveiled (Zurich, 1843), in which he expressed the same conviction that he had previously done in two ironical treatises-viz., that a dogmatic religion was opposed to our self-consciousness. About this time he broke with his old friends, the liberals, by writing a pamphlet against the emancipation of the Jews, Die Judenfrage (Brunswick, 1843). This tractate forms the transition point to the third period of B.'s intellectual activity, in which he seems to have abandoned theology altogether as something hopeless. He now occupied himself exclusively with literature and political philosophy. The number of his writings in this department is very great. The principal are, History of the Politics, Civilization, and Enlightenment of the 18t Century (Charlottenburg, 1843-45); History of Germany during the French Revolution and the Reign of Napoleon (Charlottenburg, 1846); History of the French Revolution until the Establishment of the Republic (Leip. 1847): Western Dictatorship; The Actual Position of Russia; Germany and Russia; Russia and England. The prominent idea in the whole of his works belonging to this period is, that the failure of the popular and national struggles in the 19th c. results from the essential weakness of the " enlightenment" of the 18th century. More lately Bauer again returned to theology. In 1850-51, appeared his Critique of the Gospels and the History of their Origin, and his Critique of the Epistles of St. Paul, the latter of which the author considers wholly apocryphal, and written during the 2d century. Besides the works mentioned, Bauer composed various other treatises on important points of history, theology, and politics. All B.'s writings exhibit great learning, industry, research, and acumen; but are completely antagonistic to the received opinions in theology, or to any form of evangelical religion. He is generally admitted to be quicker in the discovery of error than of truth. His latest work was Philo, Strauss, Renan, und das Urchristenthum (1874). He d. 1882.

BAUER, GEORG LORENZ, 1755-1806; a German theologian who taught that the Bible, like the old classics, must be interpreted by historical and grammatical lights, and not with regard to religious doctrines. He was the first to write a systematic exposition of the Christian dogmas as they are contained in the Bible, and in each book in particular. He was an accomplished oriental scholar, translating much from the Arabic and other eastern tongues.

BAUGNIET, CHARLES. See page 885.

BAUGE, a t. in the department of Maine-et-Loire, France, 23 m. e.n.e. of Angers. The English, under the duke of Clarence, were defeated here in 1421. Pop. '81, 4000, who are engaged in the manufacture of linens and woolens.

BAUHIN, GASPARD, 1560-1624; a French physician and botanist, b. in Switzerland; professor of anatomy and botany in the university of Basel in 1588, afterwards rector and dean of the faculty. His works on botany, catalogues, etc., were better than others of his time, and a work of his on anatomy is commendable.

BAUHIN, JEAN, 1541-1613; brother of Gaspard, a student of the botanist Fuchs and companion of Gesner in collecting plants. He also practiced medicine, and in his later life was physician to the duke of Würtemburg. He wrote a work on the medicinal waters of Europe; but his great work on plants was left unfinished. B. is considered one of the founders of botanical science.

BAUHIN'IA, a genus of plants of the natural order leguminosa, sub-order cæsalpineæ. The upper petal is somewhat remote from the rest. The leaves are generally divided into two lobes. The species are natives of the warmer regions of both hemispheres, and some of them are remarkable for the size and beauty of their flowers. Most of them are twining plants or lianas, stretching from tree to tree in the tropical forests; but some are small trees, as B. porrecta, the mountain ebony of Jamaica, so called from the color of its wood. The inner bark of B. racemosa (the Maloo climber), of B. scandens, and of B. parviflora, East Indian species, is employed for making ropes. B. retusa and B. emarginata, also East Indian, exude a brownish colored mild gum; whilst the astringent bark of B. variegata is used in Malabar for tanning and dyeing leather, and also in medicine. The leaves of various species are used in Brazil as demulcent medicines, having mucilaginous properties.-Livingstone mentions a species of B. in s. Africa, called the mopané tree. It is remarkable for the little shade which its leaves afford. They fold together and stand nearly erect during the heat of the day. On them the larvae of a species of psylla cause a saccharine secretion, in circular patches, beneath which the pupa of the insect is found. The natives scrape it off and eat it as a dainty.