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ders, and Liege, respectively, the proportion is 735, 728, 649, 557, and 555 to the sq mile. The rural population is to that of the towns as 3 to 1.

Physical Aspect.-B. is, on the whole, a level, and even low-lying country; diversified, however, by hilly districts. In the s.e. a western branch of the Ardennes highlands makes its appearance, separating the basin of the Maas from that of the Moselle, but attains only the moderate elevation of 2000 feet. In Flanders the land becomes so low, that in parts where the natural protection afforded by the downs is deficient, dikes, etc., have been raised to check the encroachments of the sea. In the n.e. part of Antwerp, a naturally unfertile district named the Campine, and composed of marshes and barren heaths, extends in a line parallel with the coast. The once impassable morasses of the Morini and the Menapii, which stayed the progress of Cæsar's legions, are now drained, and converted into fertile fields, surrounded by dense plantations, which make the land at a distance look like a vast green forest-though, when more closely regarded, we see only numerous dwellings interspersed among fields, canals, and meadows.

Hydrography, Climate, Agriculture, etc.-The abundant water-system of B. is chiefly supplied by the rivers Scheldt and Maas, both of which rise in France, and have their embouchures in Holland. At Antwerp, the Scheldt, which, like the Maas, is navigable all through Belgium, is 32 ft. deep, and about 480 yards wide. Its tributaries are the Lys, Dender, and Rupel. The Maas, or Meuse, receives in its course the waters of the Sambre, the Ourthe, and the Roer. These natural hydrographical advantages are increased by a system of canals which unite Brussels and Louvain with the Rupel, Brussels with Charleroi, Mons with Condé, Ostend with Bruges and Ghent, and this last place with Terneuse. According to the resolution passed by the government in 1842, the long postponed project of cutting canals through the Campine district was at length commenced, and has been very advantageous to the spread of agriculture. A large por tion of the Campine seems destined to perpetual barrenness-a dreary, silent, irreclaimable waste; but wherever it has been possible to rescue a patch from the stubborn heath or the relentless sand, there agricultural colonies have been planted, and cornfields shine, and pastures brighten in the heart of the immemorial wilderness. The climate of B., in the plains near the sea, is cool, humid, and somewhat unhealthy; but in the higher s.e. districts, hot summers alternate with very cold winters. April and November are always rainy months. These varieties of climate are favorable to a greater variety of produce than the neighboring country of Holland can supply. The Ardennes districts yield a large supply of wood; while the level provinces raise all kinds of grain-wheat, rye, barley, oats, etc., leguminous plants, hemp, flax, colza, tobacco, hops, dye-plants, and chicory Belgium contains upwards of 7,000,000 acres, of which one half are arable, rather more than one fifth in meadow and pasture, the same in woods and forests, and not above 500,000 acres lying waste. Some hundreds of acres are devoted to vineyards, but the wine produced is of an inferior quality. The forests of Ardennes abound in game and other wild animals. Good pasturage is found on the slopes and in the valleys of the hilly districts, and in the rich meadows of the low provinces. Gardening occupies not less than 130,000 acres; indeed, it has been said that the agriculture of B. is just gardening on a large scale, so carefully and laboriously is every inch of soil cultivated. The spade is still the principal instrument used. In the Campine, the care of bees is very productive, and the cultivation of the silk-worm is encouraged. There are valuable fisheries on the coast, which employ about 200 boats. B. is famous for its horses, and in 1880 contained as many as 290,000 of these animals, 1,250,000 horned cattle, and 700,000 sheep.

Geology. The geological formations of B. are closely associated with those of France and Britain. The greater portion of the country is covered with tertiary deposits. A line drawn across the course of the Scheldt, by Mechlin, along the Demer and Maas, will have on its northern and north-western aspect a tract of tertiary deposits, bounded northwards by the sea. In these tertiary strata the different geological periods are fully represented; but only the second, containing the pleiocene deposits, is rich in fossils. The secondary deposits occupy an extensive tract in the center of B., between the Scheldt and the Demer. The most important district, economically, is the south-western, consisting of paleozoic rocks-Silurian, Devonian, and carboniferous. These beds have a very complicated structure, from the numerous and extensive flexures and folds they have undergone, and these are often accompanied with great upward shifts, by which beds of many different ages are brought to the same level.

Mineral Products.-B. is rich in minerals, which, next to its abundant agriculture, constitute the chief source of its national prosperity. The four provinces in which they are found are Hainault, Namur, Liege, and Luxemburg. They include lead, copper, zinc, calamine, alum, peat, marble, limestone, slate, iron, and coal. Lead is wrought, but only to a small extent, in Liege; copper in Hainault and Liege; manganese in Liege and Namur; black marble at Dinant; slates at Herbemont; and calamine principally at Liege. But these products are insignificant compared to the superabundance of coalfrom anthracite to the richest gas coal-and iron, in which B. ranks next to England. In 1882, B. had 271 coal-mines, employing 103,702 persons, and producing 17,590,989 tons, the total value of which was £17,035,824. In the same year the metallic mines produced about 2,000,000 tons of iron ore, 72,555 of pyrites, 18,000 of calamine, 2000 of blende, 2918 of lead, and 450 of manganese. These mines gave employment to

2312 workmen. In the same year there were 317 iron-works, producing manufactured iron to the value of £6,894,652.

The modern industrial character of the Belgians may be traced back to a very early period, even to the time of the Romans, who noticed the love of traffic prevailing in the Celtic districts of Gallia Belgica. This characteristic has remained steadfast to the present time. It is impossible not to recognize in the cloth-weaving Atrebate the ancestors of the industrious race who gradually extended themselves towards the e. and n. of Belgium. During the early commerce of Europe, when trade was secure only within walled towns, Flanders was the principal seat of productive industry; and its recent separation from Holland has also been indirectly favorable to the development of its internal resources. A state which, like B., begins its career under a burden of debt, which is shut in between nations who possess important ports and colonies, and which is peopled by races not yet sufficiently blended to constitute a perfect nationality, must, before all other things, develop its internal, material resources. This has been well understood in Belgium. Since the commencement of its independent career, it has devoted its attention almost exclusively to those branches of industry and commerce by which its future greatness must be supported.

Manufactures.-The chief manufactures are linen, woolen, cotton, silk, lace, leather, and metals. The great seats of the linen manufacture-recently revived after a long depression-are Courtray and Bruges, in West Flanders; Ghent, in East Flanders; Brussels, in Brabant; Mechlin, or Malines, in Antwerp; and Tournay, in Hainault. The number of linen pieces annually produced is about 900,000. The lawn and damask fabrics of Bruges are celebrated, as well as the lace made in and near Brussels, Malines, Louvain, and Bruges, which sometimes commands a price of £40 per yard. But the Belgian hand-spun yarn, though superior in quality, cannot maintain its ground against machinery. Verviers, Liege, Dollaim, Ypres, Doperinghe, Limburg, Bruges, Mons, Thuin, and Hodimont are centers of the woolen manufacture. Ypres alone employs 50,000 workmen in this branch of industry. Brussels and Tournay have large carpet manufactures, and Hainault supplies a considerable amount of hosiery. The principal manufactures of cotton are at Ghent and Lokeren, in East Flanders; Bruges and Courtray, in West Flanders; Malines, Louvain, and Anderlecht, in Brabant: Tournay and Mons, in Hainault; and also at Antwerp. The separation of B. from Holland had at first a prejudicial effect on this as on other trades; but the opening of the navigation of the Scheldt, the intersection of the country by railways and canals, and, in consequence, the rapid and extensive communication with other countries, have revived the activity of the cotton trade, which now gives employment to between one and two hundred thousand workmen. Maestricht, which belongs to Holland, is one of the chief seats of manufactures of leather; but this trade is also carried on at Limbourg, Liege, Stadelot, Namur, Dinant, and especially at Bruges and Ghent. The manufacture of gloves has made great progress in recent years. Metallurgy also has rapidly increased in productiveness since 1816, when Cockerill introduced into B. the English method of smelting iron with coke. The principal seats of the metal manufacture are Liege, Namur, Charleroi, Mons, and their neighborhoods. There are large ordnance foundries at Liege and Malines, and celebrated makers of fire-arms and machinery in Liege; nail-making at Charleroi; tin-ware, etc., at Liege and in Hainault; wire and brass factories at Namur; zinc manufactures at Liege; lead and shot factories at Ghent; the gold and silver goods of Brussels and Ghent may also be noticed as important branches of Belgian industry. Flax is one of the most extensive and valuable products of B., no fewer than 400,000 persons being employed in its culture and preparation. Besides these, we may mention the straw-bonnet manufacture in the neighborhood of Liege; the paper fabrics of the provinces Liege, Namur, and Brabant; the glass-works of Hainault, Namur, Val-StLambert, and Brabant; the porcelain, etc., of Tournay, Brussels, Mons, and Ghent; and sugar-refineries at Antwerp, Bruges, Ostend, Ghent, etc. Steam-engines have been quite familiar objects in the several manufactories of B. for many years.

C..

The natural wealth and industrial resources of B. have always been more or less modified by the political relations of the country. In the middle of the 13th B., with Bruges as its chief seat of manufactures, had surpassed all its neighbors in industry, and had established a flourishing commerce with the Italians. After the discovery of America, Antwerp took the place of Bruges, and was regarded as a northern Venice. But the unhappy period of Spanish oppression and the war in the Netherlands deeply depressed Belgian commerce, which suffered still more at the peace of Westphalia, when Holland monopolized the navigation of the Scheldt. The river was again opened at the close of the 18th c., when the French had invaded the Netherlands, and Napoleon caused the harbor of Antwerp to be restored and enlarged. At the cost of Amsterdam, Belgian commerce received a new impulse by the union of B. with Holland, as settled by the congress of Vienna; but scarcely were hopes revived, when the revolution of 1830 changed the prospects of the country. The treaty signed in London, April 19, 1839, gave to Holland the right to levy a toll of two-and-sixpence per ton on all vessels navigating the Scheldt. The privilege of navigation on the inland waters between the Scheldt and the Rhine was purchased by B. for an annual payment of £50,000. In June, 1839, this privilege was virtually taken away by the government of Holland, and, in 1843, with additional expense to B., the new treaty of navigation was ratified by both parties.

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During this crisis preceding the development of a free commerce, B. had not neglected her internal resources. The société de commerce de Bruxelles, the banque de Belgique, and other associations for the extension of trade, had been formed; and May 1, 1834, the government adopted the scheme for a railway-system the most complete of any on the continent. The center of the Belgian net-work of railways is Malines, whence lines are carried out in all directions. The n. line goes to Antwerp and its harbor; the w., by Ghent and Bruges, to Ostend; the s.w., by Brussels and Mons, to Quiévrain and the borders of France, not far from Valenciennes; and the e., by Louvain, Tirlemont, Liege, Verviers, and extending to the confines of Prussia. There were in 1883 open for conveyance in B. 2699 m. of railway lines; of these 1919 m. were in the hands of the state, and the rest were worked by companies. The cost of the permanent way and buildings of these lines has been about £18,280 a mile. The net revenue at present is stated to be £1508 a mile. The working of the post-office in B. was, in 1883, as follows: Private letters, 86,429,304; printed papers, 46,570,000; post-cards, 23,270,584; newspapers, 91,319,000. On Jan. 1, 1884, there were in that country 869 post-offices, 865 telegraph sta tions, and the total length of telegraph lines was 3713 m., the length of wires, 16,830 miles. B., along with France, Italy, and Switzerland, entered on a monetary league in 1865, in which the four states agreed to adopt the French decimal system of coins, weights, and measures. In 1883, the imports amounted to £62,085,000, and the exports to £53,725,000. These sums include the value of "goods in transit." Excluding the latter, the value of purely Belgian imports in 1882 was £114,064,000; of exports, £8,327,941. The commercial intercourse of B. with Great Britain, in 1883, amounted to £16,178,345 for exports, and £14,755,012 for imports. Among the principal articles of export are coal, flax, linen, woolen and cotton goods, glass, firearms, and nails. More than a third of the whole is consigned to France, and half of the remainder to Germany, England, and Holland. The maritime commerce is chiefly carried on in British ships, the native shipping, which is not increasing, being in 1883 only 62 vessels, of 86,360 tons, with 299 fishing boats. The unit of the Belgian monetary system is the franc.

The intellectual improvement of B. has not kept equal pace with its material prosperity. The lack of political independence, which has forced the best energies of the country into foreign centers of activity, and the variety and confused mixture of dialects, have retarded the growth of the national intellect, and the formation of national individuality. An independent national literature, acting as the bond of a pure national unanimity, was not possible, under such unfavorable conditions, to which may be added the facilities afforded for supplying the people with cheap reprints of foreign works. The Flemish element-the most important-seems indeed to have become conscious of its capabilities in respect to literature; but a genuine expression of the entire Belgian mind will first become possible when the Walloon element also begins to develop a freer form of speech along with its own peculiar modes of thought. The royal academy of arts and sciences at Brussels is at the head of several other unions for scientific purposes. Among the most celebrated names in Belgian literature and science, may be mentioned-Quetelet in mathematics, Altmeyer the historian, Fetis the musical critic, Conscience the Flemish poet and novelist, Willems the philologist, and Baron and Moke in literary history and criticism. Painting and architecture formerly flourished in the wealthy old towns of Flanders; but after the brilliant epoch of Rubens and his pupils, a long period of dullness followed. In modern times, a revival of art has taken place, as may be proved by the names of the painters, Wappers, De Keyser, Gallait, De Biefve, Verboekhoven, etc.; the sculptors, W. Geefs, Simonis, Jehotte, Fraikin, etc.; the engravers, Calamatta, Brown, and Meunier; and the medalists, Wiener and Hars.

The Belgian school-system suffered for more than ten years under the freedom of teaching allowed by the constitution, which was chiefly made use of by the wealthy Catholic clergy. The consequence was that education assumed a divided and sectarian character. Since the state, however, has exercised a general superintendence over the universities, gymnasia, and elementary schools, a higher style of education has prevailed. The two universities of Ghent and Liege, united with a school of architecture and mining; ten national schools (Athénées), in which a classical is combined with a commercial education; upwards of 50 schools preparatory to these (écoles moyennes); two seminaries for teachers at Lierre and Nivelle, besides the superintendence now exercised by the state over the institutions formerly maintained by communes and provincial corporations, and, above all, over the primary schools-all this forms a sufficient counterpoise to the numerous schools supported by private individuals and religious bodies. Among the latter may be noticed the Catholic university of Louvain, founded in 1836, and conducted under strict ecclesiastical discipline; the free university of Brussels; and the gymnasia of the Jesuits at Namur, Brugelette, Brussels, and Liege. Journalism in B. has been greatly extended by the abolition of the stamp-duty (1848), and above 340 newspapers are now published, including 56 Flemish papers; but only a few have obtained a proper degree of respectability and influence.

Population and Religion.-Tne pop. of B. is of mixed German and Celtic origin. The Flemings (a branch of the Teutonic family) and Walloons (a branch of the Celtic family), distinguished by their peculiar dialects, are still conspicuous among the pure Germans, Dutch, and French. The French language has gained the ascendency in educated society, and in the offices of government; but the Flemish dialect prevails numeri

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cally in the proportion of 4 to 3. The Catholic religion is the prevailing form. There are only about 14,000 or 15,000 Protestants, and 3000 Jews. The supreme Catholic dignitaries of B. are the archbishop of Mechlin, and the five diocesan bishops of Bruges, Ghent, Tournay, Namur, and Liege.

The government of B. is a limited constitutional monarchy, and was established in its present form by the revolution of 1830. The legislative body consists of two chambers that of the senate, and that of the representatives. A responsible ministry, with the king as president, is at the head of all public affairs, and its measures are carried into effect by the governors of the several provinces. The ministry includes departments for home affairs, foreign affairs, finance, justice, public works, and war. The administration of justice retains the forms of French jurisprudence. In 1884, the estimated revenue of B. was £12,645,465; and the estimated expenditure, £13,074,829. The national debt amounted in 1884 to 2,130,411,115 francs, or £85,216,444.

The standing army of B. is formed by conscription, to which every healthy man who has passed his nineteenth year is liable. Substitution is allowed. The legal period of service is eight years, but about five years are allowed on furlough. According to laws passed in 1870, 1873, the strength of the army is 114,000 men, on the war footing, and 47,000 in times of peace. The importance of B in a military point of view affords a reason for the maintenance of fortifications at Antwerp, Östend, Nieuport, Ypres, Tournay, Mons, and other places.

History of Belgium to 1830.-In the time of the Romans, the name Gallia Belgica was given to the southern Netherlands lying on the confines of Gaul and Germany. It was peopled by Celtic and German tribes. The latter were predominant in Batavia and Friesland, and under the rule of the Franks in the 5th and 6th c., gained the ascendency also in the southern districts. Until the close of the 11th c., the feudal system, which arose at the fall of the Carlovingian dynasty, prevailed in the Netherlands, where the several southern provinces were made duchies and counties. The co. of Flanders, superior to all the others in industry and commerce, maintained, during a long struggle, its independence against France; and, in 1385, when the male line of the counts of Flanders expired, was annexed to the powerful house of Burgundy, which, in the beginning of the 15th c., also gained possession of all the other provinces of the Netherlands. The rulers of Burgundy aimed at founding a powerful united state between France and Germany, and therefore endeavored to repress the free republican spirit which manifested itself in the rapidly rising towns. The work of establishing unlimited sovereignty was interrupted by the fall of Charles the bold, and the partial division of his territories; but was continued by the emperor Charles V., the grandson of the emperor Maxi. milian, and Maria, the heiress of Burgundy-through the latter of whom the Nether lands passed into the possession of the house of Hapsburg. After the abdication of Charles, these provinces passed into the hands of Philip II., and by the law of primogeniture, should have remained united with Spain. But scarcely had the peace of Château-Cambresis (1559) put an end to the encroachments of France, when the religious disputes of the reformation, and the despotic measures of Philip, excited in the provinces a long and bloody war for civil and religious freedom, which ended in the independence of the northern or Teutonic Netherlands, while in the southern or more Celtic provinces (now included under B.), both the sovereignty of Spain and the rule of the_Roman Catholic church continued. In 1598, B. was ceded by Philip II. to his daughter Isabella, wife of the archduke Albert, when it became a distinct and independent kingdom. Several measures for the better regulation of internal affairs, especially in the administration of justice, and for the revival of industry, which had been injured by the unenlightened policy of Philip, were projected. Unfortunately, Albert died childless in 1621, and B. fell back into the hands of Spain, and became involved in the wars attending the decline of the Spanish monarchy. Peace was concluded chiefly at the cost of Belgium. By the treaty of the Pyrenees (1659), the counties of Artois, Thionville, and other districts, were given to France. Subsequent conquests by the same powerful neighbor secured to it, at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668), the possession of Lille, Charleroi, Oudenarde, Courtray, and other places. These were partly restored to B. at the peace of Nimeguen; but as a compensation, Valenciennes, Nieuport, Cambray, St. Omer, Charlemont, and other places, were given up, and only partially regained by B. at the peace of Ryswick in 1697. After the conclusion of this treaty, at the close of the reign of Charles II. of Spain, some endeavors were made to create prosperity in B. by a new system of taxation and customs, and by the construction of canals, to counteract the injury done to its commerce by the closing of the navigation of the Scheldt; but these projected improvements were interrupted by the Spanish war of succession, which was not concluded until the peace of Utrecht, in 1713. By this treaty, B. was given to Austria, Holland retaining the privilege of garrisoning the most important fortresses on The French frontier, and also of exercising a monopoly of the navigation of the Scheldt. The Belgian commercial company" at Ostend, founded by Charles VI. in 1722, fell in 1731-another sacrifice to the cupidity of Holland. During the Austrian war of succession (1744), almost the whole country fell into the hands of the French; but was peaceably restored to Austria by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748).

B. remained undisturbed by the seven years' war, and during the long peace fol lowing the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, prosperity was restored. Especially during the

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mild reign of Maria Theresa of Austria, measures of public improvement were promoted by prince Charles of Lorraine, governor of the Belgian provinces. The reign of Joseph II., son and successor of Maria Theresa, began in disputes with Holland. The latter country consented to the abolition of the barrière-contract, in consequence of which, several important fortresses were demolished, though the emperor failed in his endeavor to make free the navigation of the Scheldt. But the errors of his internal administration were the serious feature of his policy. By his innovations, he offended the religious sympathies of the people, and violated the legal privileges of the states, of which he had made the strict preservation a condition of obedience. In a short time, discontent openly manifested itself. The Austrian authorities were attacked; Brabant refused to pay taxes; while the more violent fled into Holland, and organized an armed expedition. Returning, they were joined by numbers of the inhabitants, defeated the foreign troops, captured Brussels, and, in the beginning of 1790, declared their inde pendence. În the course of the year, however, the Austrians succeeded in regaining possession of the country. The privileges of the states as they existed at the close of the reign of Maria Theresa were restored, and at the same time stringent measures were adopted to prevent any renewal of disturbances. But this state of peace was soon interrupted by the outbreak of the war of the French revolution. B. was conquered by Pichegru in the campaign of 1794, and subsequently united to France by the treaties of Campo-Formio and Luneville. It now shared in the fortunes of France during the consulate and the empire; received the code Napoleon; and in all political relations was organized as a part of France. After the fall of Napoleon, it was united with Holland, and its boundaries defined by the congress of Vienna (May 31, 1815).

At the introduction of the new constitution, the want of national unity in language, faith, and manners was strikingly manifested by the two great parties-the Dutch Protestant population, with their commercial habits, on the one side, and the Catholic population, of agricultural and manufacturing B., on the other. These natural and unavoidable obstacles to the political harmony of the new kingdom, were further increased by the unfair treatment which B. experienced. All the more important provisions of the constitution had a regard chiefly to the interests of Holland. Repeated attempts were made to supersede the Belgian language by the Dutch in all affairs of administration and jurisprudence, though the former were the more numerous people: the privileges of the Belgian clergy were abridged; the poorer classes were severely taxed; while the govern ment was almost exclusively composed of Dutchmen. In 1830, among seven ministers, there was only one Belgian; among 117 functionaries of the ministry of the interior, only 11 Belgians; among 102 subordinates of the ministry at war, only 3 Belgians; and among 1573 officers of infantry, only 274 Belgians. B. was politically divided into two classes -the Liberal and the Catholic. Both of these strongly resented and opposed the encroachments of Holland: the Liberals, from a desire to preserve the national secular institutions; the Catholics, from a desire to preserve the national church. The government became alarmed at their increasing hostility; and ultimately, when their patriotic fusion rendered its position critical, it made several concessions; the supremacy of the Dutch language, and the taxes on the necessaries of life, were abolished. Efforts were also made to conciliate the Catholic priesthood. But these concessions came too late, and were, in consequence, only construed as signs of weakness. In 1828 and 1829, it was attempted to coerce and intimidate the opposition, by prosecuting the liberal or democratic leaders. This only fanned the fire of discontent, which was already burning fiercely in the hearts of the Belgians, and panting for an opportunity to break out into visible insurrection.

From 1830 to the present time.-The French revolution of 1830 afforded the desired occasion. On the king's birthday (Aug. 24, 1830), several riots occurred in various towns of Belgium. At this period, however, the idea of separation from Holland does not seem to have presented itself consciously to the Belgian mind; the deputies who were sent to the Hague to state the causes of the general dissatisfaction, merely insisted on its possessing a separate administration, with the redress of particular grievances. But the dilatory and obstructive conduct of the Dutch deputies in the states-general assembled at the Hague on the 13th Sept., exasperated the Belgian nation beyond measure. A new and more resolute insurrection immediately took place. In seven days, the people had deposed the old authorities, and appointed a provisional government. Prince Frederick, the son of the sovereign, who commanded his father's troops, was compelled to retreat from Brussels to Antwerp, having suffered considerable loss. On the 4th Oct., B. was declared independent by the provisional government, composed of Messieurs Rogier, D'Hooghvorst (commandant of the civic guard), Joly, an officer of engineers, and the secretaries Vanderlinden and De Coppin; count Felix de Mérode, Gendebien, Van de Meyer, Nicolai, and De Potter, the democratic leader. They also announced that a sketch of the new constitution was in course of preparation, and that a national congress of 200 deputies would shortly be called together. Freedom of education, of the press, of religious worship, etc., were proclaimed. Here and there, the new liberty showed a tendency to become anarchic; but its excesses were speedily suppressed; and at the national congress of the 10th Nov., out of 187 votes, only 13 were in favor of a democratic government. Meanwhile, the London congress had assembled, and after mature deliberation, recognized the severance of the two kingdoms as a fait accompli (Dec.