THE INTERNATIONAL CYCLOPEDIA.

ADHUMLA Norse aud', desert, and hum, darkness), in Norse mythology, a coed,

brought into existence simultaneously with the giant Ymir, whom she nourished, and from whose body the gods formed the world. She licked the salt frost-covered rocks, and the mighty Bure, grandfather of Odin, was created. See BURE.

AUDIOMETER, an instrument for the measurement of the faculty of hearing, invented by prof. Hughes, of London, 1879. It consists of a battery of two Lechanché cells, a microphone, two fixed primary coils, a graduated insular bar, to which at each end one of the fixed coils is attached, a secondary induction coil which moves along the graduated bar, and a telephone, the terminals of which are connected with the terminals of the induction coil. When the battery is in action the noise can be gradually increased by slowly moving the induction coil from the center toward either one of the primary coils, and diminished by moving it toward the center.

AU'DIPHONE, an instrument to assist the hearing of persons in whom the auditory nerve is not entirely destroyed. It was invented by Richard S. Rhodes, of Chicago, in 1879, and consists of a thin sheet of ebonite rubber, hard vulcanite, or even glazed millboard or birchwood veneer, fan-shaped, and having strings leading from the outer edge to the base of the handle, so that it may be focussed to different degrees of convexity. When the outer edge is pressed against the upper front teeth and the convex side is outward, sound vibrations are conveyed to the auditory nerve through the teeth and bones of the head.

AUDITA QUERELA, a form of action which lies for a defendant to recall or prevent an execution, who has grounds to show that such execution ought not to issue against him, or on account of some matter occurring after judgment amounting to a discharge, which could not have been and cannot be taken advantage of otherwise. In the U. S. it has been in some states entirely superseded by relief granted upon motion, in others it is recognized by statute and is of frequent use. The writ of A. Q. does not lie against the government.

AUDITOR (Lat. audio, I hear), one who is appointed to examine accounts, which in former times were delivered viva voce. He is usually a professional accountant.-AudiTOR OF THE COURT, in Scotland is an officer who taxes the cost of suits in which expenses are found due, a remit being made to him for that purpose by the presiding judge. -AUDIT OFFICE. In 1785, public auditors were appointed in England under the title of "commissioners for auditing the public accounts. Subsequently, their powers and duties were frequently extended and defined, and in 1866 were consolidated with those of her majesty's exchequer. This department is empowered to call on all keepers of public accounts (army and navy, land revenue, etc.) to account for moneys or stores intrusted to them.

AUDITOR (ante). The federal, state, and city governments elect or appoint auditors to supervise accounts. In the United States treasury department there are six, each having charge of a single branch of service. States and cities usually have one or more. An A. may be appointed by a court to state items and balances of accounts which are in question; he has authority to hear testimony, and in some states his reports are final as to questions of fact. Churches, benevolent and other societies, usually have A.'s for inspection of financial accounts.

AUDITORY NERVE. By anatomists, the A. N. is associated with the facial, and is the seventh in order of origin from the brain, counting from before backwards. The seventh pair consists of the portio dura or facial, the portio mollis or auditory, and a small intermediate portion. The portio mollis apparently commences by some white streaks in the floor of the fourth ventricle; it then runs forward to the back of the petrous portion of the temporal bone, and enters the internal auditory meatus. The facial then leaves it to pass along the canal called the aqueductus fallopii, and the auditory divides into two portions, which diverge-the smaller one posterior for the semicircular canals and the vestibule, the other for the cochlea. Those entering the semicircular canals

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divide into five branches, forming at last a nervous expansion somewhat analogous to the retina.

Several theories have been held at different periods with regard to the manner in which the nerves terminate in the cochlea, and how sound is transmitted from the latter to the brain. The latest, and that which is at present entertained by most physiologists, is that of M. Schultze. It has been shown, by actual experiment, that when a nerve in connection with a muscle is acted upon by a succession of very rapid strokes from the little hammer of a tetanmotor, and, when the strokes have arrived at a certain number in the second, a stimulus is sent along the nerve exciting the muscle to action. It is in the same way that M. Schultze supposes the impression of sound to be propagated to the nerves of the cochlea, by means of a series of little tetanmotors called the teeth of Corti, who discovered them. They are situated in the spiral lamina, which separates the spiral canal in the interior of the cochlea into an upper and a lower half or scala. The spiral lamina consists of an osseous septum, next to the central axis of the cochlea, and of a membranous layer, which prolongs the osseous septum to the outer wall of the cochlea, thus completing the spiral lamina.

Fig. 1.

a, the osseous septum grooved for the passage of the
cochlear nerve b, which terminates by a free end
inside the chamber c, along the floor of which it lies
for a short distance; d, d, are the two layers of the
membranous septum. Lying in contact with the
end of the nerve is the enlarged extremity of a rod
e, which is connected in a flail-like manner by the
hinge f to another rod, which is fixed at g.

This membranous septum is double, and between its layers there is a chamber which contains the teeth of Corti, ranged side by side throughout the whole length of the spiral lamina, and gradually getting shorter from base to apex, like the strings of a harp or pianoforte. The chamber is filled up by a tremulous jelly-like fluid. The diagram, fig. 1, represents a perpendicular section of the spiral lamina. When the waves or vibrations of sound strike against the bones of the head, these bones are caused to vibrate; this vibration is transmitted through the head to the bones of the cochlea, which in turn

set in motion the tremulous jelly which fills up the membranous chamber, c.

AUDLEY, Sir JAMES, one of the original knights of the order of the Garter, founded in 1344 by Edward III., on his return from France after the victory of Cressy, was frequently in personal attendance on Edward the Black Prince, whom he accompanied to France in 1346. He was so conspicuously brave at the battle of Poictiers that the prince retained him as his own knight, and declared him to be the bravest soldier on his side. He conferred on him an annual revenue of 500 marks, which A. immediately gave up to his squires. This act of disinterestedness becoming known, the Black Prince conferred a further annual sum of 600 marks upon him. A. also accompanied the Black Prince into Spain, and in 1369 the office of seneschal of Poitou was conferred upon him. He took part in the capture of La-Roche-sur-Yon in Poitou, in the same year, and d. a few months after. The prince attended his funeral obsequies at Poictiers.

AUDLEY, THOMAS, lord Audley of Walden, 1488-1544; an English lord chancellor. He was chosen speaker of the commons in the Long parliament in 1529; in 1532, he was made a knight and successor of Sir Thomas More as keeper of the great seal. In 1533, Henry VIII. made him lord chancellor, in which capacity he presided at the trial of More and others. When the confiscated church lands were parceled out, A. got Christ church in London with all its real estate, together with the great abbey of Walden, in Essex, which he made into a residence for himself. He gave lands to the support of what was then Buckingham college, Oxford, which was incorporated after the gift under the name of St. Mary Magdalen's college.

AUDOUIN, JEAN VICTOR, 1797-1841; an entomologist, native of Paris. With Dumas and Brongniart, in 1824, be began the Annals of Ňatural Science. He was professor of entomology in the museum, and a physician, in 1826. He was the founder and first president of the entomological society, and in 1838 a member of the academy. He investigated, at the request of the government, the injuries done to vine and silk culture by insects, and contributed a great number of reports and papers on his favorite subject, and, with others, wrote a work on the insects injurious to vineyards, etc.

AUDRAIN', a co. in n.e. Missouri, intersected by the St. Louis, Kansas City and Northern, and a branch of the Chicago and Alton railroads; 675 sq.m.; pop. '80, 19.760 It is a grazing and agricultural region, generally level and fertile. Beds of coal have been found. Co. seat, Mexico.

AUDRAN, GÉRARD, one of the most celebrated engravers of the French school, was b. at Lyon in 1640. He belonged to a family distinguished for its excellence in this department of art. After a three years' residence at Rome, where he studied under Carlo Maratti, and acquired a high reputation by his engraving of pope Clement IX., he was recalled to France by Colbert, and was appointed engraver to his majesty Louis XIV. Here he engraved the principal works of Lebrun, with whom he lived on terms of the closest friendship. His masterpieces are a series of engravings illustrating the battles of Alexander. He d. at Paris, 1703.

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AUDUBON, a co. in s.w. Iowa; 630 sq.m.; pop. '80, 7448. Agriculture is the leading interest. Co. seat, Exira

AU DUBON, JOHN JAMES, a distinguished American ornithologist, was b. in Louisiana, United States, about 1780, where his father, an officer in the French navy, owned a plantation. His father, who was himself an ardent lover of nature, early directed his son's attention to natural objects. The youth conceived a passion for the study of birds; and a book of ornithological specimens determined him to become a draughtsman. About the age of 14, he went to Paris, and studied for some time under the celebrated David. In 1798, he was settled on a farm in Pennsylvania by his father, but he did not distinguish himself as an agriculturist. In 1810 he sailed down the Ohio with his wife and child, on a bird-sketching expedition. The following year, he visited Florida for a like purpose; and for many years after he continued his ornithological researches among the American woods; to the neglect of his ordinary business. The latter he finally abandoned; and in 1824 he went to Philadelphia, where he was introduced to prince Charles Lucien Bonaparte, who so warmly encouraged him in his plans that he determined on publication. After two years' further exploration of the forests of his native country, he came to Europe with the view to secure subscribers for his work on The Birds of America. He met with a warm reception from such men as Herschel, Cuvier, Humboldt, Brewster, Wilson, and Sir Walter Scott. The issue of his work was commenced shortly after, each bird being delineated life-size. The colored engravings were chiefly executed by the late Mr. W. H. Lizars, of Edinburgh. The work was completed in 87 parts, elephant folio, containing 448 plates. While the work was in process of publication in this country (it was finished in 1839), A. revisited America three times, in order to make further researches. In 1831, he began the publication of his American Ornithological Biography in Edinburgh, which was also completed in 1839. In 1839, A. finally returned to America, where, in 1844, he published a reduced edition of his works. Assisted by Dr. Bachman, he also published The Quadrupeds of America, and a Biography of American Quadrupeds. He d. Jan. 27, 1851, in his 71st year.

AUENBRUG'GER, or AVENBRUG'GER, VON AU'ENBRUG, LEOPOLD, 1722-1809; an Austrian physician who discovered the mode of investigating diseases of the chest and abdomen by auscultation. He applied his ear to the chest, and noted the sounds that followed a smart blow of his hand on the patient. His treatise on the subject attracted little attention until it was translated and illustrated by Corvisart, in 1808, when it quickly led the way to Laennec's improvement, whereby the ear is aided by the stetho scope. The great value of A.'s discovery has long been universally admitted.

AU ER, ALOIS, was b. May 11, 1813, at Wels, in upper Austria, and was trained in a printing establishment of his native town to be a compositor, corrector, and manager. During his scanty leisure moments, A. employed himself in acquiring a knowledge of French, Italian, English, and other languages, in which he underwent an examination in 1835 and 1836, before the university of Vienna. His brilliant appearance on this occasion opened up to his ambition the probability of a professorial chair. In Oct., 1837, he was appointed professor of Italian in the college of Linz, in upper Austria. Here he labored assiduously in public and private teaching, and published a variety of useful school-books, on a system peculiar to himself. In 1839 he set out on his travels through Germany, Switzerland, France, and England, collecting materials for his favorite art. From 1841 to 1868, he was director of the national printing-office at Vienna. In 1847 he was elected member of the academy of sciences. He made known a photographic discovery, "spontaneous impression," in Die Entdeckung des Naturselbstdrucks (1864). He d. in 1869. A. published the Sprachalle, or Lord's Prayer, in 603 languages, with Roman types (1844); and the Lord's Prayer in 200 languages, with their national alphabets (1847). See NATURE-PRINTING.

AU'ERBACH, BERTHOLD, a popular German author, of Jewish extraction, was b. at Nordstetten, in the Würtemberg Black Forest, Feb. 28, 1812 ; d. 1882. He got his education at Carlsruhe, Stuttgart, Tübingen, Munich, and Heidelberg. Having at an early period abandoned the study of Jewish theology, he devoted his attention to literature. His first publications, Judaism and Modern Literature (Stuttg. 1836), and a translation of the works of Spinoza, with a critical life of his author (5 vols. Stuttg. 1841), had a philosophical tendency. In his Educated Citizen (Carlsruhe, 1842), and Village Tales of the Black Forest (1843), he applied himself to the portraiture of real life, and succeeded well. The Village Tales were translated into English, Swedish, and Dutch, and were generally admired. Among his other works are Schrift und Volk (1846); Das Landhaus am Rhein (1869); Wieder unser; Gedenkblätter zur Geschichte dieser Tage (1871); Waldfried (1874), etc.

AUERBACH, HEINRICH (real name STROMER), 1482-1543; a Bavarian physician and friend of Luther. He erected a large building in Leipsic in 1530 which is still known as the Auerbachshof, in which is a cellar where the great reformer drank, and out of which, as the people believed, Faust, the magician, rode upon a barrel, an event kept in memory by a painting on the wall of the cellar.

AU'ERSPERG, ADOLPH WILHELM DANIEL, Prince, b. 1821; son of prince Wilhelm Auersperg; served as a major of dragoons; in 1867, a member of the Bohemian diet, and

Augmentation.

president of the assembly; in 1869, member of the upper chamber of the Austrian Reichstag; in 1871, succeeded Beust as the head of the Austrian ministry. He was in the same office in 1879. He d. 1885.

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AU'ERSPERG, ANTON ALEXANDER, Count von, 1806-76; an Austrian statesman and poet, more widely known by the nom de plume Anastasius Grün." He belonged to an old Suabian family which obtained large estates in Carniola. After studying law and philosophy in Vienna and Gratz he traveled over Europe and England, and in 1839 married the countess Maria von Attems. He was offered official position but refused, as he was a prominent liberal and a strong opponent of Metternich and his policy. He wrote verses while a student, and in 1830 published a small volume, and also a semipolitical romance. The next year his political reviews appeared and made a great sensation, exciting the government to detect the writer, who was fined 50 ducats. In 1835, he issued another collection of patriotic verses, and in 1837 collected his earlier writings into one volume, of which nearly 20 editions have been published. In 1848, he was chosen to the German "Vorparliament," and soon afterwards to the Frankfort national assembly, where he was on the "left center." He left in disgust before the year ended, in consequence of the murders of Auerswald and Lychnowski. In 1859, he returned to public life, but in 1861 was made a life-member of the Austrian Hevrenhaus, where he was the author of addresses to the throne. In the diets of Carniola and Styria he was a liberal and the supporter of German ideas. In 1868, he was elected president of the delegates of the Austrian crown lands, but, except the seat in the Hevrenhaus, he resigned all official positions. Some of his speeches, especially those in the confessional debates of 1868 and 1874, have attained great popularity. Robin Hood (in German) was his last poetical work of consequence.

AU'ERSPERG, CARLOS, Prince, b. 1814; an Austrian statesman, member of one of the oldest families of the empire. On the re-establishment of constitutional government, in 1861, he was made president of the upper chamber of the Reichsrath; and as representative of the Bohemian landed nobility in the diet of Prague, he has taken a conspicuous part in the defense of the constitutional system against clerical and feudal reaction, and in establishing the unity of the empire against federation. He was a zealous supporter of the liberal cabinet, at the head of which was his brother Adolph.

AU'ERSTÄDT, a village in Saxony, 10 m. w. of Naumburg, where Davout won a great victory over the Prussians under the duke of Brunswick on the day (Oct. 14, 1806) that Napoleon defeated their main army at Jena. Napoleon made Davout duke of A.

AU'GEAS, or AU'GEIAS, according to one account, the son of Helios and Iphiboë, but according to others, of Phorbas and Hermione, was king of Elis, and renowned for his wealth in oxen, of which he fed 3000 head in his stables. When the dung of these animals had been allowed to accumulate for many years, Hercules was commissioned by Eurystheus to cleanse the Augean stables in one day, and was promised as payment a tenth part of the oxen. Hercules accomplished the task by turning the courses of the rivers Peneus and Alpheus through the masses of ordure. When A. refused to pay the stipulated wages, a war ensued, and A. was slain by Hercules. The fable of the Augean stables often serves as an allusion in declamations on political corruptions, etc.

AUGEREAU, PIERRE FRANÇOIS CHARLES, duke of Castiglione, marshal and peer of France, one of the most brilliant and intrepid of that band of general officers whom Napoleon gathered around himself, was the son of a tradesman, and was b. 21st Oct., 1757. After serving some time in the French carabineers, into which he enlisted at the age of 17, he entered the Neapolitan service, in which he remained until 1787, when he settled in Naples as a fencing-master. With other French residents, he was banished from that city in 1792, and immediately volunteered into the French revolutionary army intended for the repulsion of the Spaniards. His services were so conspicuous, that in less than three years he was made general of a division. In 1795 he accompanied the army to Italy, where he greatly distinguished himself, especially in the field, but also in the council. He took an active part and gained much glory in the battles of Millesimo, Ceva, Lodi, Castiglione (for which he received his title). Roveredo, Bassano, etc. In 1797, he was appointed to the command of the army of the Rhine; but in a few months after, the directory, not liking the spirit he displayed there, made him commander of the 10th division at Perpignan. This post he resigned in 1799, when he was elected as deputy into the council of the five hundred. In 1801 he received the command of the army in Holland, and was active in several engagements. In 1804 he was made a marshal; and in the following year he commanded a division of the army which reduced the Vorarlberg; and was afterwards engaged at Wetzlar, Jena, Eylau; also in Italy (1809); Spain (1810); Berlin, Bavaria, and Saxony (1813). He d. June 11, 1816.

AUGER, FLEXIBLE, an invention which permits great freedom in the direction of a boring tool. Its shaft is a closely coiled, flexible, steel spiral, fitted at one end with a sheave or pulley, and at the other with a suitable jaw for holding a bit. This shaft turns within a flexible tube, lined with spiral wire. Motion is communicated to the pulley by a cord, or belt, from some fixed machinery, and the belt is kept strained by a