AXIS, in geometry.-The A. of a curved line is formed by a right line dividing the curve into two symmetrical parts, so that the part on one side exactly corresponds with that on the other; as in the parabola, the ellipse, and the hyperbola. The A. of any geometrical solid is the right line which passes through the center of all the corresponding parallel sections of it; in this sense, we speak of the A. of a cylinder, a globe, or a spheroid. By the A. of rotation, we understand the right line around which a body revolves.-In physical science, the A. of a lens is the right line passing through it in such a manner as to be perpendicular to both sides of it; and the A. of a telescope is a right line which passes through the centers of all the glasses in the tube. The A. of the eye is the right line passing through the centres of the pupil and the crystalline lens.

AXIS, in botany, a term applied to the central part both above and below ground, around which the whole plant is regarded as arranged. The stem is called the ascending A.; the root, the descending axis. The opposite tendencies of growth appear as soon as a seed begins to germinate, in the radicle and plumule; the former of which is the descending A., and the latter the ascending A.; the former descending deeper into the soil, the latter ascending towards the air and light. That part of the stem around which the flowers are arranged is called the floral A., and, in describing some kinds of inflorescence, the terms primary floral A., secondary floral A., etc., are occasionally employed.

AXIS, Cervus aris, a species of deer, abundant on the banks of the Ganges, but found throughout India and in many islands of the eastern Archipelago. It was known to the ancients by the name axis. One of its Indian names is chittra, and by British sportsmen in India it is generally called the spotted hog-deer. By some naturalists, it has been made the type of a genus of cervide, called axis. The A. has a great resem blance in size and coloring to the European fallow-deer; it is generally of a rich fawn color, beautifully spotted with white, nearly black along the back, the under parts snowwhite. The horns, however, differ very much from those of the fallow-deer, being slender, sharp-pointed, little branched, and not at all palmated. The female has no horns. The A. frequents thick jungles in the vicinity of water, and feeds during the night. It is commonly found in herds of 15 or 20, of which 3 or 4 are males. Its sense of smell is remarkably acute, and it is generally very shy and timid, so that sportsmen find it difficult to get within shot. The males, however, sometimes exhibit great courage in defense of the young. It is very easily domesticated, is very gentle in its manners, has been frequently imported into Europe, and breeds freely in the parks in which it is kept at a few noblemen's and gentlemen's seats in Britain and France.

AXLE, the bar of metal or wood, connecting the wheels and supporting the body of a wheeled vehicle. In railway carriages the A. is fastened to and revolves with the wheels.

AX MINSTER, a small t. in e. Devonshire, on the side of a little hill on the left bank of the Axe. Pop. in '81, 2872. A. was once famous for the manufacture of Turkey and Persian carpets, which were little inferior to those imported. Two celebrated geologists have been connected with A.: Dr. Buckland was born here, and Dr. Conybeare was lord of the manor, and vicar.

AX'MOUTH, a village at the mouth of the Axe, e. Devonshire. A mile e. of A. occurred, in 1839, a landslip; an area of 200 ft. wide, for three quarters of a mile paral lel to the shore, having sunk 250 ft. below the sea, with a great noise. The chasm thus formed became a lagoon, while the neighboring sea-bed rose 40 feet. Rather more than a mile further e., occurred another but smaller landslip in 1840. The district around Consists of greensand strata.

AXOLOTL, pronounced acho'latl (gyrinus, or axolotes edulis), a remarkable animal, found in great abundance in some of the Mexican lakes, and particularly in the lake of Mexico itself. It is a batrachian (q.v.) reptile of the family of the proteida or perennibranchiate batrachians, in which the gills remain during life, and the lungs are never sufficiently developed to maintain respiration by themselves. It is in general form very like a fish; has a large and broad head; and tapers into a long compressed tail, which has a thin membranous fin both on its upper and its lower side. It has four legs, with toes not webbed; and on each side of the neck the gills form three long branched or feathered processes, which give it a very remarkable appearance. It is brown, and mottled with small black spots. When full grown, it averages 8 or 9 in. in length, though Cometimes measuring 16 inches. It is esteemed a great delicacy in Mexico, and is there constantly brought to the market. See illus., BATS, ETC., p. 292, fig. 1.

AXUM, once the capital of the Ethiopian kingdom of the same name, is situated in the modern Abyssinian province of Tigré, of which it is capital. Lat. 40° 7' n.; long. 39° 27 e. It now lies mainly in ruins, among which stands the principal church of Abyssinia, built in 1657. Pop. 2000. The former greatness of the city is testified by yet remaining structures cut in granite, some of which have inscriptions. From these it appears that the Axumite empire extended over Abyssinia, and even over Yemen and Saba in Arabia, and possessed the command of the Red sea. It acquired political importance from the circumstance, that it formed on the s. a boundary to the world-embrac ing power of Rome, as well as to that of Parthia, which then extended as far as Arabia, The Byzantine emperors even paid an annual tribute to the sovereigns of Axum. This

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country was also the furthest point southward that Grecian civilization reached; through the medium of Egypt, Greek philosophy spread into A., and the Greek language became the language of the court and of the priests. Under king Aizanes, who, in a still remaining inscription, appears as a heathen, Christianity was introduced into the country from Egypt by the two apostles Frumentius and Edesius, who were followed by many priests from the same quarter. The new doctrine soon spread over the whole country; Frumentius was made the first bishop of A., and Fremona was built in honor of him. The stone churches, many of them very imposing, yet scattered over the whole. of Abyssinia, owe their architecture to Egyptian priests, and arose at that period, as well as the most celebrated Abyssinian convents and hermitages. The Axumite empire carried on, through Adule, an active commerce with Arabia and India; it formed the outermost bulwark of Christianity; and, as such, particularly from about the 6th c., it interfered in behalf of the Christians in Arabia, and became the natural enemy of Mohammedanism. The contests in which it soon became involved with that power caused its fall, as the kings gradually lost their possessions in Arabia, and the whole coast on the Red sea and gulf of Aden. The outlets for commerce were thus cut off, and the empire was at the same time so weakened by constant wars, that internal disorders brought on its complete dissolution..

AYACUCHO, a department of s. Peru, on the e. side of the Andes, 24,213 sq.m.; pop. 147,909. It has a rough surface and variable climate; little is done in mining: cattle and honey-raising and agriculture are the principal employments. The battle of Dec. 9, 1824, fought in this department, secured the independence of the Spanish South American colonies. The Spaniards, in largely superior force under Laserna, were effectively beaten and their leader captured by the colonists under gen. Sucre, the result being the capitulation of the Spaniards in Peru and the surrender of all their posts. This was the last Spanish army that was ever seen on the new continent.

AYA LA, PERO LOPEZ DE, called El Viejo, to distinguish him from his son of the same name, was b. at Murcia in 1332, of one of the first families of the Castilian nobility. He stood high in the regard of several kings of Castile, and filled the first offices of the state, latterly, that of high-chancellor and high-chamberlain of Castile. At the battle of Najera, in 1367, he was taken prisoner by the English, then in league with Peter the cruel, and confined for some time in an English dungeon; and again in 1385, by the Portuguese, at the battle of Aljubarota. He d. at Calahorra, in 1407. A. has acquired a name, not only as a statesman, but as a writer, especially as a historian and poet. His best known work is his Crónicas de los Reyes de Castilla D. Pedro, D. Enrique II., D. Juan 1., D. Enrique III. (2 vols. Madr. 1779-80-the older editions of 1495 and 1591 are imperfect). He was the first among the Spaniards to give up the usual simple narrative of events in the order of time, and to seek to give a more rational representation of them according to the rules of historic art. It is only in recent times that the poetical works of A. have been discovered, the most remarkable of which is the Libro o' Rimado de Palacio. This "Book in Rhyme on Court-life," as its singular title may be translated, was begun during the poet's first captivity in England, and is composed in the old national form of rhyming Alexandrine stanzas of four lines; the contents are satirical and didactic. A. appears also in his poetical works as a representative of that transition epoch of Spanish national literature, when it was passing from a popular original litera ture to one of a more artificial imitative character.

AYAMON TÉ, a t. of Andalusia, Spain, on the left bank of the Guadiana, and near its mouth, where it forms the boundary between Spain and Portugal. It stands on an acclivity. The upper part of the town consists of narrow and irregular streets; those of the lower part are regular and wide. There are three public squares. The principal occupation of the inhabitants is fishing. Boat-building and lace-making were once very extensively carried on, but both have greatly declined. Pop. 6000.

AYE-AYE, Cheiromys Madagascariensis, a quadruped about the size of a hare, a native of Madagascar, which was at first placed by naturalists among squirrels, and was ranked by Cuvier along with them in the order of rodents (rodentia), although Sonnerat, who discovered it, pointed out its affinity also to the makis or lemurs, to which family it is now pretty generally referred. The principal reason for placing the A. among the Rodents, has been found in the conformation of its teeth; but the other characters of the animal agree generally with those of the lemurs, and its habits resemble theirs. The A. has large, broad ears, large round eyes, long brownish gray hair, and a large bushy tail, which it does not carry over its back as squirrels do. It is very active during the night, but sleeps during the day. In confinement, it will subsist on boiled rice and fruits. It spidery, hairy hand has a slender, almost wire-like third finger, used for detecting and picking out wood-grubs. Its name is supposed to be derived from its cry. Owen de scribed this animal carefully in the Transactions of the Zoological society, 1866. Se illus., BATS, ETC., vol. II., p. 292, fig. 15.

AYER, JAMES C., M.D. See page 879.

AYESHAH, the favorite wife of Mohammed, was b. at Medina in 610 or 611 A.D. She was only nine years of age when she married the prophet. Her father's name was

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Abdullah, but he was surnamed Abu-Bekr, "father of the virgin," in consequence, it is said, of his daughter being the only one of Mohammed's wives who was a virgin. Although A. bore no children to Mohammed, she was so tenderly beloved by him, that he was wont to say that she would be the first of his wives to whom the gates of Paradise would be opened. It is stated by Mohammedan historians, that to the charms of her beauty she added a knowledge of mathematics, rhetoric, and music. But this statement is improbable. She was accused of adultery, but Mohammed having produced a revelation from heaven to the effect that she was innocent, punished her accusers, and made it an article of faith for all time, that whoever should not believe in her purity should endure the pains of hell forever. In his last illness, Mohammed, by his request, was carried to her house, and expired in her arms. After the prophet's death, A. took an active part in the plot which deprived kalif Othman of his power and life, and headed a force to resist the accession of Ali. After some partial success, however, the troops under her were effectually defeated by Ali, and she was taken prisoner. Ali spared her life, and allowed her to reside in any town in Arabia she chose, provided she did not interfere with state affairs. She d. at Medina (677 A.D.). In spite of her political adversities, A. was highly venerated by all true Mussulmans, and named the prophetess, and the mother of believers. She was consulted on divers points of the Koran, and her interpretations were held to be binding. They have been collected in the Sunna (q.v.).

AYLESBURY, a t. in the center of Buckinghamshire, on a rivulet which flows into the Thame, an east branch of the Thames. The pop. of the electoral district in 1881 was 28,899; that of the town proper only 7795. A., with its hundreds, returns two members to parliament. It is chiefly an agricultural town. Many fat ducks are reared in the neighborhood to supply the London markets at an early period of the season, when they fetch very high prices. A. is a very ancient town, having been taken from the Britons by the Saxons in 571.

AYLES FORD, a village near the center of Kent, on the right bank of the Medway, 31 m. n.e. of Maidstone. Remarkable ancient remains occur here. On a hill-slope 14 m. to the n.e., there still stands a celebrated ancient dolmen, or burying-place, called Kits Coity House-a small truncated pyramidal chamber, open in front, and formed of four large rude Kentish rag blocks, three of which are uprights, with a slight slope inwards, and the fourth laid on them. Of the side-stones, one is 7 by 74 ft., 2 ft. thick, and 84 tons in weight; the second is 8 by 8 ft., weighing 8 tons; and the third is smaller and more irregular in form. The capstone is 12 by 94 ft., 24 ft. thick, and weighs 10 tons. This dolmen seems to have been the center of a group of ancient monuments connected by a long stone avenue with another group, 7 m. to the s.e. In this district also occur, on the brow of the chalk-hills on both sides of the Medway, large circular sepulchral pits, opening at bottom into one or more chambers. Some of these pits are covered with flat stones, and filled with flints. At A. the Britons defeated the Saxons in 455, and drove them from the island; but early in the 7th c. the Saxons were victorious here. AYLMER, a village in Ottawa co., province of Quebec, Canada, on lake Deschênes, at the foot of steam navigation for the upper Ottawa. Pop. '81, 1762.

lake.

AYLMER, a lake about 50 by 30 m., in British America, 80 m. n. of Great Slave

AYLMER, or ELMER, JOHN, 1521-94; an English theologian, a graduate of Oxford and tutor to lady Jane Grey. Mary's accession compelled him to abandon the country, and he went to Switzerland, where he wrote a reply to John Knox's argument against female sovereigns, in which A. highly flattered Elizabeth. He returned after E.'s accession, and was made archdeacon of Lincoln, and one of the synod that settled the doctrines and discipline of the church. As bishop of London, 1576, he went so far in retaliating for Roman Catholic intolerance as to be rebuked by the privy council.

AY LOFFE, Sir JOSEPH, an English antiquary of celebrity, b. about 1708 in the parish of Framfield, Sussex. In 1731 he was elected a fellow of the royal society, and in the following year, a fellow of the society of antiquaries. He was one of the first council of this society, after it received its charter of incorporation in 1751; and he was made vice president some years after. When the new state-paper office was established in 1763, he was made one of the commissioners for the preservation of the state papers. In 1772 he published a valuable work on the national records. He also wrote several usefu papers for the publications of the society of antiquaries; and projected, and was engaged in the execution of the work, afterwards continued by Gough, and known as Gough's Sepulchral Monuments, at the time of his death in 1781.

AYMAR, JAQUES, a celebrated French professor of the art of divination. A. was the son of a peasant of Dauphiné, and was b. at St. Veran in Sept., 1662. He was brought up as a mason, but he forsook that trade for the divining-rod, which he used at first to point out springs, hidden treasures, etc. In 1692, a murder and robbery was committed at Lyon, and A. and his rod were called into requisition to detect the criminals. In some way or other, he succeeded in discovering one of the guilty parties. A.'s fame having been spread by this incident, he was called to Paris to exhibit his art before the prince de Condé; but, unfortunately for his reputation, his power of divina

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tion utterly failed him; and being forced to confess himself an impostor, he was sent back in disgrace to his original obscurity.

AYMARAS, the name of an aboriginal people of South America, now chiefly in Bolivia, numbering about 200,000. They claim a very ancient origin from a people who came from the north and made the head of their government on the sacred island in lake Titicaca, and they also claim that they furnished the Quichian or Inca people with their religious ceremonies and knowledge of arts. It appears that the A. tilled the earth, built large and even splendid edifices, were familiar with painting and sculpture, and probably knew something of astronomy. They venerated the dead, putting them in a sitting position in large stone tombs that would hold a dozen, ranged so as to face each other, their feet meeting in the center of a circle. Some tombs were of brick; some of several stories with a body in each story; and all had openings facing the east, as the A. were sun worshipers. The present sun they called the fifth of a series, all of which had risen from the sacred lake. The Peruvian Incas gradually subdued the A. and took possession of their country. The existing A. are Roman Catholics. They are of ordinary Indian complexion, but of intelligent though melancholy expression. Agriculture is their chief reliance. See illus., PERU, ETC., vol. XI., p. 560, figs. 1, 3, 17, 18. AYMON, the surname of four brothers, called respectively Alard, Richard, Guiscard, and Renaud, sons of Aymon or Haimon, count of Dordogne, who figure among the most illustrious heroes of the chivalric poetry of the middle ages; but their historic existence must be considered problematical, as the deeds attributed to them possess in so large a measure a miraculous character. What basis of fact may underlie the fanciful accretions of mythology, it is now impossible to determine. Their career belongs to the cycle of marvels, of which Charlemagne is the central point, and their adventures furnished rich material to the romantic narratives of Italy in the 15th and 16th c., and, in fact, were the exclusive subject of some of these. A novel, entitled Les Quatre Fils Aymon, by Huon de Villeneuve, a French poet of the age of Philippe Auguste, details very minutely their exploits. Finally, Ariosto conferred a poetical immortality on the family by the publication of his Roland, in which Renaud, the bravest of the four brothers, plays continually the most distinguished part. The traditions concerning them are not uniform or consistent. Some have a Provençal origin; but the author or authors of the popular German book which Tieck has edited and published, entitled The Beauti ful and Entertaining History of the Four Brothers Aymon, and of their Horse Bayard, with the Deeds and Heroic Feats that they Accomplished against the Pagans, in the Time of Charlemagne, seem to have drawn from a different source. The most probable hypothesis, therefore, is, that the varieties in these poetic legends are due to the fancy and national predilections of the particular authors.

AYOOB KHAN. See page 879.

AYO'RA, a t. of Spain, in the province of Valencia, and 50 m. s.w. from Valencia, on the upper part of a river of the same name, and situated in an extensive hollow at the base of a limestone mountain. It has four squares and wide streets. On the summit of the hill are the remains of an old castle, close to which the town once stood. The inhabitants are chiefly employed in husbandry and oil-making. Pop. 5412.

C.,

AYR, the co. t. of Ayrshire, is situated on the left bank of the river Ayr, about the middle of the coast of Ayrshire, 40 m. s.s. w. of Glasgow by rail. It lies in a coal district. A. is a clean and handsome town, and its principal streets are well built. To the south, between the town and the race-course, numerous elegant villas have recently sprung up. The spire of the assembly-rooms is 217 ft., and the Wallace tower, 113 ft. high. Three bridges span the river and connect the town with Newton-upon-Ayr-the "auld brig" and the " new brig" (taken down in 1877, and rebuilt) of Burns, together with a railway bridge. Part of the tower of the old church of St. John, built in the 12th and turned into a fort by Cromwell, is still standing. A. harbor is formed by the estuary of the river, and is protected by piers and a breakwater. A large wet dock has recently been built. The coasting trade is considerable. The chief export is coal, 180,000 to 200,000 tons yearly being exported from the Ayr collieries. A considerable quantity of grain and timber is imported. At one time, much wine was imported from France. At an early date, A. was a commercial and military place of some importance. William the lion made it a royal burgh about 1202. During the Scottish wars of independence, it formed a regular center of military operations, and, while in possession of an English garrison, it was the scene (according to Blind Hurry) of Wallace's first exploits. The principal objects of interest near A. are connected with the memory of Robert Burns. See ALLOWAY KIRK. Pop. in 1871, municipal burgh, 7987; of the parliamentary burgh, including Newton-upon-Ayr, 17,954. A. unites with Campbelton, Irvine, Inverary, and Oban, in sending a member to parliament. Parliamentary constituency (1881-1882), 2287.

AY'RER, JACOB, next to Hans Sachs the most prolific and important German dramatic writer of the 16th century. His history is involved in obscurity; but it is known that he was a citizen of Nürnberg in 1594, and a procurator in the courts of law. It was not till after his death, in 1605, that a collection of his pieces was published, con

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sisting of 66 tragedies, comedies, and carnival plays (Nürnb. 1618). A. has the same garrulous breadth of dialogue as Hans Sachs, but is inferior to him in wit and humor.

AYRES, ROMEYN B., b. N. Y., 1825; a graduate of West Point; served in the Mexican and civil wars; for brave conduct in the Richmond campaign made brevet maj. gen, of the U. S. army and of volunteers; col. 2d artillery, 1879; d. 1888.

AYR'SHIRE, an extensive maritime co. in the s. w. of Scotland, bounded, n., by Renfrewshire; w., by the firth of Clyde and the North channel; s., by Wigton and Kirkcudbright; e. and n.e., by Dumfries and Lanark. Its greatest length is 78 m.; its greatest breadth, 26-average 14; area, 1149 sq.m., or 735,262 statute acres. It is the seventh in size of the Scottish counties. The general aspect of the county is undulating and hilly, the land attaining no great elevation, except a small portion in the n., and some considerable tracts in the s. and s.e., which are mountainous. None of the eminences exceed 2000 feet. A. contains a great number of lakes and small streams, the latter rising near the inland boundary of the county. The chief rivers-only 20 to 35 m. long -are the Ayr, with its tributary the Lugar, and the Doon, which flow across the center of the county; the Garnock and Irvine in the n.; and the Girvan and Stinchar in the south. A. to the s. of Girvan consists of lower Silurian rocks, and to the n. of that river, of patches of Devonian, carboniferous, and trap rocks. It is rich in valuable minerals, especially coal, ironstone, limestone, and freestone. The other minerals have been long wrought, but it is only of late years that the working of ironstone has been established-and is now carried on on a large scale in the n. of the county. On the banks of the Ayr is found an excellent species of whetstone, called water-of-Ayr stone. The climate of A. is mild and healthy, but moist. The soil along the coast is light and sandy, interspersed with deep loam; the most fertile districts are in the center of the county, where clay predominates. On the e. side are extensive mosses and moorlands. The three ancient divisions of the county are-Carrick, s. of the Doon, mostly wild and hilly; Kyle, between the Doon and the Irvine, containing much rich level land, but towards the coast the soil is light, and, though well cultivated, is less productive; and Cunningham, comprising all the country n. of the Irvine, mostly fertile. The characteristics of these districts are rudely indicated in the old country rhyme:

Kyle for a man;

Carrick for a coo;

Cunningham for butter and cheese;
And Galloway for woo.

Agriculture in A. till about 1800, was very backward; but since then, especially of late, extraordinary progress has been made in furrow draining, improved rotation, and road-making; while the condition of the peasants has been much improved. In 1878, 314,191 acres were under crops and grass, held by 3569 persons, the farms being generally small. Dairy-husbandry is carried to high perfection in Ayrshire, the breed of milch cows, of which it rears a greater number than any other Scotch county, being noted as the finest in the kingdom for the quantity and quality of their milk. The Dunlop cheese, so called from the parish of that name, is almost as celebrated as Stilton, but is now almost superseded by that made on the Cheddar process. The breed of horses is also excellent. Manufactures, especially woolen and cotton, are carried on to an important extent. At Catrine there are extensive cotton-works; at Kilmarnock, dyeworks, iron-foundries, etc.; and at Cumnock, a large pottery. Of the minor manufac tures, the most characteristic is that of ornamental woodwork, often bearing tartan designs, which is extensively carried on at Mauchline. Great iron-works exist at Muirkirk, Hurlford, Kilwinning, Ardeer, Dalry, and Dalmellington. Maybole manutures shoes and agricultural implements. There are valuable fisheries on some parts of Troon, Ardrossan, Ayr, and Irvine are thriving ports. Pop. '71, 200,809; inhabited houses, 26,798; and the number of children, from five to thirteen, receiving education, 30,576. A. county returns two members to parliament. The chief towns, besides Ayr, are Kilmarnock, Girvan, Maybole, Dalry, Kilwinning, Beith, Irvine, Stewar ton, Ardrossan, Saltcoats, Troon, Mauchline, Galston, Newmilns, Kilbirnie, and Largs. Of antiquities, the most interesting are the ruins of Crossraguel Abbey, near Kirkoswald, and of the castles of Turnberry, the family seat of Robert the Bruce, Dunure, Loch Doon, Dean, Auchinleck, Dundonald, etc.; also the ruins of Alloway Kirk.

the coast.

A. was inhabited, in the time of Agricola, by the Damnii, with whom were afterwards mixed the Scots from the opposite coast of Kintyre. In the 8th c., the Northumbrian Saxons seized the territory; and afterwards came the Normans, whose traces still exist in local names. During the religious persecutions of the Stuarts, A. was a stronghold of the Covenanters. Pop. '81, 217,504.

AYSCUE, Sir George, 1616–76; an English naval commander. He was knighted by Charles I., and in the civil war took the side of the parliament, commanding in the waters around Ireland. In 1651, he reduced Barbadoes and Virginia to subjection, and the next year assisted Blake in the struggle with De Ruyter and Van Tromp. Fifteen years later he had command of a squadron in the "four days'" battle, in which the Royal Prince, his flag-ship, stranded and was surrendered to the Dutch, who kept him a prisoner

for 15 months.