ings and doings of Johnson, with whom he associated on most intimate terms, and whom he accompanied on his tour in Scotland and the Hebrides in 1773. Boswell was married in 1769 to a lady named Montgomery, by whom he had several children. Led by his taste for London society, he removed thither at a mature period of life, and entered at the English bar, but without attaining to any success in the profession. After Johnson's death in 1784, he employed himself in arranging the materials which he had collected, and preparing his long-contemplated biography. His Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides appeared in 1785, his Life of Samuel Johnson, in 2 vols., in 1791. Both have gone through many editions. B. has been emphatically styled by Macaulay the first of biographers." His work is indeed full of details but they are such as exhibit character, and are arranged in the most interesting manner. He neither conceals his own faults, nor those of Johnson, but presents a picture of which the truthfulness is too evident to be questioned; and Johnson is perhaps already better known by the pages of B. than by any of his own writings. B. died in London, June 19, 1795. Besides the works already mentioned, he was the author of one or two minor productions of temporary interest. In Dec., 1856, there was published a posthumous volume of Letters of James Boswell, addressed to the Rev. W. J. Temple, from the Original MSS., in which the gay, insouciant character of the man very strongly appears. His eldest son, Sir ALEXANDER BOSWELL, baronet, of Auchinleck, born 1775, was the author of a number of Scottish songs, full of humor, which he collected into a volume, entitled, Songs, chiefly in the Scottish Dialect (Edin. 1803), and some of which attained considerable popularity. He also wrote Edinburgh, or the Ancient Royalty, a picture of Scottish manners in the dialogue form, and edited many of the older productions of Scottish literature. A duel with Mr. Stuart of Dunearn, occasioned by personal allusions in a publication connected with a parliamentary election, resulted in his death on Mar. 26, 1822.

BOSWELLIA, a genus of trees of the natural order amyridacea (q.v.), having flowers with a small five-toothed calyx, five petals, and a crenulated grandular disk; a triangular capsule with three valves, three cells, and one seed in each cell; the seeds winged on one side; their cotyledons intricately folded, and cut into many segments. Two or three species only are known, of which the most interesting is B. serrata (or B. thurifera), the tree which yields olibanum (q.v.), now very generally believed to have been the frankincense (q.v.) of the ancients. It is a large timber-tree, with pinnate leaves, which have about ten pair of hairy serrated oblong leaflets, and an odd one, each leaflet about 1 to 14 in. in length. The flowers are small and numerous, in axillary racemes, and of a pale pink color. When the bark is wounded, the olibanum flows out, of a delightful fragrance, and hardens by exposure to the atmosphere. The tree is found in the mountainous parts of Coromandel, and is supposed to be also a native of other parts of India, and of Persia, Arabia, and perhaps Abyssinia. B. glabra, a very similar species, a native of India, also yields a resin, comparatively coarse, which is sometimes used for incense, and is boiled with oil as a substitute for pitch.

BOSWORTH, or MARKET BOSWORTH, a market t. in Leicestershire, on an eminence in a very fertile district, 12 m. w. of Leicester. Pop. in 1881, 6409, many of whom are employed in knitting worsted stockings. On a moor in the vicinity was fought, 1485, the battle in which Richard III. was slain, and which terminated the wars of the roses. On an elevation, called Crownhill, lord Stanley placed the crown on the head of the earl of Richmond, Henry VII. Here Simpson the mathematician was born; Dr. Johnson was an usher in the free grammar school, in which Salt the Abyssinian traveler, and Richard Dawes the Greek critic, were educated.

BOSWORTH, JOSEPH, D.D., a distinguished philologist, was a native of Derbyshire, where he was b. in 1789. He graduated first at Aberdeen, and afterwards at Leyden; he also took the degrees of B.D. and D.D. at Cambridge and Oxford. He obtained a curacy in the English church in 1815, and two years afterwards the vicarage of Horwood Parva, Buckinghamshire. He now devoted such time as an active discharge of his parochial duties left at his disposal to literature, and especially to researches in Anglo-Saxon and its cognate dialects. The result of his labors appeared in 1823 in a work, entitled Elements of Anglo-Saxon Grammar. Fifteen years afterwards, he published the work by which his name is best known, A Dictionary of the Anglo-Saxon Language (new ed., 1882), which is considered alike remarkable for its ripe scholarship, enlarged views, copiousness, and accuracy. An abridged edition was afterwards issued by the author. B. resided in Holland eleven years, from 1829 to 1840, as British chaplain. He returned to England in 1840, and was presented to the vicarage of Waithe, in Lincolnshire. 1858, he became rector of Water Stratford in Buckinghamshire, and also professor of Anglo-Saxon at the university of Oxford. In 1865, he published the gospels in Gothic of 360 A.D., and the Anglo-Saxon of 995 A.D., in parallel columns with Wycliffe's version of the year 1389, and Tyndale's of 1526. He was author of various other works of a philological character. His death took place on May 27, 1876.

In

BÖSZÖRME NY, the chief of the six towns of the free district of Hadjuk, in the e. of Hungary, about 10 m. n. n. w. of Debreczin. It carries on an active trade in rye, tobacco, water-melons, soda, and saltpeter. The population in 1880 amounted to 20,000.

BOT, BOT-FLY, and GAD-FLY, names common to many insects of the family astrida (q.v.) or astracida, the genus astrus of Linnæus. The name bot is sometimes restricted

to the larvae, which appears to have been its original use, the other names being given to the perfect insects; the name gad-fly often to insects of the genus tabanus (q.v.), to which some try to restrict it. The insects of this family are now supposed not to be those which were called astrus by the ancients, although, like them, extremely troublesome to cattle. They are dipterous (two-winged) (q.v.) insects, nearly allied to the muscides (house-fly, flesh-fly, blow-fly, etc.), with small 3-jointed antennæ, and mouth destitute of a proboscis.-The horse-bot, or gad-fly of the horse (gasterophilus, or gastrus, or astrus equi), sometimes also called the breeze and horse-bee, is much less common in Britain than in some parts of the continent of Europe. It is not quite half an inch in length, woolly, with yellowish gray head, rusty thorax, abdomen, and the wings whitish, with brownish-gray spots. See illus., INSECTS, Vol. VIII., p. 46, fig. 25. The abdomen of the female terminates in a blackish horny tube. In the latter part of summer, the female hovers about horses, and deposits her eggs on their hairs, where they remain attached by a glutinous substance until they, or the larvæ just emerging from them, are licked off by the tongue of the horse, their destined place being its stomach. It is believed that the fly deposits her eggs only on those parts which are accessible to the horse's tongue, seeming to prefer the back of the knee-joint, where they may sometimes be found in hundreds. The larva is yellowish, without feet, short, thick, soft, composed of rings which have a double row of short teeth surrounding them; it is somewhat acuminated at one end-the head; and the mouth is furnished with two hooks, one on each side, for taking hold of the inner coat of the horse's stomach, to which the B. attaches itself, and from which it derives its subsistence, hanging in clusters sometimes of three or four, sometimes of more than one hundred. Here it spends the winter, and in the following summer, when it is about an inch long, it disengages itself, and being carried through the horse's intestines, burrows in the ground; and changes into an oval black pupa with spiny rings, from which, in a few weeks, the perfect insect comes forth. Multitudes, of course, become the prey of birds, before they can accomplish their burrowing.-It has been disputed whether or not bots are very injurious to horses; and some have even maintained that, when not excessively numerous, their presence is rather beneficial, an opinion which is certainly not recommended by its apparent probability, whilst it seems to be universally admitted, that in great numbers they are hurtful.-The red-tailed horse-bot (G. or E. hæmorrhoidulis), also a British species, deposits its eggs upon the lips of the horse, distressing it very much by the annoyance which it gives in so doing. The larvæ attach themselves chiefly to the surface of the intestine, about the anus of the horse, and sometimes cause an annoying irritation. Linseed oil is used for their removal.-The Ox-BOT, or ox gad-fly (astrus or hypoderma bovis) is more troublesome than any species of horse-bot. It is a beautiful insect, not quite half an inch long, and thicker in proportion than the horsebots; it has brown unspotted wings; the face whitish, the crown of the head brown, the thorax black, the abdomen whitish, with a broad black band around the middle, and yellow hairs at the extremity, where also the female has an ovipositor-a remarkable organ, formed of a horny substance, and consisting of four tubes retractile within one another, like the pieces of a telescope; and the last of them terminating in five points, three of which are longer than the others, and hooked. By means of this organ, a small round hole is pierced in the hide of an ox's back, in which an egg is deposited. The fly is very quick in depositing her egg, not remaining upon the back of the animal more than a few seconds. Cattle exhibit great alarm and excitement at the presence of the gad-fly, and rush wildly about, with head stretched forward, and tail stuck out, to escape from their tormentor. The further injury done by this insect is not, however, usually great; the larva a little pearl-white maggot (warble or wormal)-feeding upon the juices beneath the skin, causes a swelling, called a warble, forming a sort of sac, within which it lives and grows, amidst a kind of purulent matter suited to its appetite; and from which it finally emerges, leaving a small sore, and like the horse-bot, undergoes its further transformations in the ground. By pressure on the warbles, bots may be destroyed, and when they are numerous, assiduous oiling of the back of the ox is resorted to for the same purpose.-The SHEEP-BOT (cephalemyia or œstrus ovis) is a much more serious pest than any other British species, and is not unfrequently very destructive to flocks. The insect is smaller than either the ox-bot or horse-bot; it is of grayish color, with a large head and yellow face, and is most abundant in damp situations and woody districts. It is to be seen chiefly in the months of June and July. Sheep exhibit great alarm when it approaches them, and seem to seek, by keeping their noses close to the ground, and by incessant motion of their feet, to keep it from entering their nostrils. It is in the nostrils of the sheep that this fly deposits its eggs, and the larvæ, when hatched, make their way into the maxillary and frontal sinuses, feeding upon the juices there, until they are ready to change into the pupa state, in April or May of the following year, when they find their way again through the nostrils to the ground. They seem to cause great irritation in their progress up the nostrils of the sheep, and the poor animals run hither and thither, snorting and in great excitement. "The common saying, that a whimsical person is maggoty, or has got maggots in his head, perhaps arose from the freaks the sheep have been observed to exhibit when infested by their bots." The bots cause considerable irritation in the cavities, where they usually fix themselves, and sometimes get into the brain, and cause death.-These larvæ move with considerable

Botany.

quickness, holding on by the hooks with which their mouth is furnished, and contracting and elongating the body. It is said that flocks fed where broom is in flower are never infested with them; and when many cases arise in a flock, it is found particularly advantageous to remove it to a dry soil.-Goats, deer, and other quadrupeds are also liable to be assailed by different kinds of gad-fly. The eggs of one of the species which attacks the fallow-deer, are deposited in the nostrils, and the larvæ make their way in large numbers to a cavity near the pharynx. Reindeer are excessively tormented by these insects, one kind depositing its eggs in their nostrils, and another in their skin; and it is no infrequent thing for a large part of a flock to be destroyed by them. When feeding where bot-flies are numerous, they keep such watch against them, that they neglect to eat, become emaciated, and often actually perish in consequence.-Even human beings have sometimes been afflicted by insects of this family. Humboldt saw Indians in South America having the abdomen covered with tumors produced by their larvæ. See illus., INSECTS, Vol. VIII., p. 46, figs. 12, 13.

BOTAL LI, LEONARDO, b. 1530, in Piedmont; physician to the queen of Charles IX. and to Catherine de Medici. He was the author of several medical works, but is best known by his blunder in describing the foramen ovale between the right and left auricles of the heart, still known as the "foramen of Botal." He found this open in a grown person-an exceptional case, since it is usually closed at or soon after birth, but he took the exceptional for the natural condition, and described it as an opening for passing arterial blood into the left auricle.

BOTANIC GARDEN, a garden devoted to the promotion of botany, and in which plants are collected and cultivated in order to scientific study. The various economical applications of botany, however, in agriculture, manufactures, medicine, etc., are almost always kept particularly in view; and one great object of a B.G. is to bring to a country useful foreign plants, to determine the question of their suitableness to its climate, and to introduce those which may be cultivated with advantage. B. gardens are now deemed indispensable to universities; they are reckoned among the public institutions of great cities, and even of nations, and are established in new colonies, not only for the sake of science, but as one of the means of promoting their prosperity. They were utterly unknown to the ancients, although some of the secondary objects in which they are found most useful engaged the attention of both Greeks and Romans. The first approach to a B.G. appears to have been made about 1309 A.D., in the garden of Matthaeus Sylvaticus, at Salerno; botanical science, however, being merely subservient to medicine. Of a similar character was the medical garden established at Venice, by the republic, in 1333. The example of Venice was followed by other Italian cities, and plants from different parts of the world began to be collected. At length, about contemporaneously with the revival of botanical science in modern times, the first true B.G. was formed in 1533 at Padua, by Musa Brassavola, for Gaspar de Gabrieli, a wealthy Tuscan noble; which was soon followed by those of Pisa, Florence, Bologna, and Rome. The first public B.G. was that of Pisa. A public B.G. was established at Padua in 1545, by a decree of the republic of Venice, at the request of the professors and students of medicine. The republic of Venice greatly encouraged the study of botany by sending persons to the Levant, to Egypt, and even to India, to procure plants for this garden.The B.G. of Leyden was begun in 1577; it enjoyed in its infancy the care of Clusius, and was brought to great perfection by Boerhaave, who was professor of botany there.The first public B.G. in Germany was established by the elector of Saxony at Leipsic in 1580, and was soon followed by others.-France had no B.G. till Louis XIII. established the jardin des plantes at Paris, which was begun in 1610, but not completed till 1634.-Nor was there any public B.G. in England till 1632, when that of Oxford was founded by the earl of Danby. Private B. gardens, however, had existed in England for the greater part of a century before.-The G.B. of Edinburgh, the first in Scotland, was founded about the year 1680, as a private B.G., by Dr., afterwards Sir Andrew, Balfour, a zealous naturalist, who had inherited a collection of plants formed by a pupil of his own, Patrick Murray, of Livingston, at his country-seat, and transferred them to Edinburgh; and the city of Edinburgh afterwards allotted to it a piece of ground, and allowed an annual sum for its support out of the revenues of the university.

The B.G. at Kew occupies a high place among British national institutions; it pos sesses one of the richest collection of plants in the world, and has been greatly improved under the care of sir William Jackson Hooker and his son, who succeeded him in 1865. The Hortus Kerensis of Mr. Aiton, to whom the garden owed much of its prosperity in the 18th c., illustrates the greatness which it had even then attained. One of its chief glories is now its immense palm-house, finished in 1848, which is 362 ft. in length, and the central part of it 100 ft. wide and 66 ft. high.-A palm-house has, in like manner, greatly added to the attractions and value of the B.G. of Edinburgh. It is 100 ft. long by 60 ft. wide, and 70 ft. high. These houses permit something of the stateliness and magnificence of the palms of the tropics to be seen in Britain.

Of B. gardens on the continent of Europe, the jardin des plantes may be regarded as holding the first place, both with reference to the strictly scientific study of botany, and to the care bestowed upon the introduction and diffusion of useful or beautiful plants from all parts of the world. There exists in France what may be called a system of B

Botany.

gardens one at least in every department-to which plants are sent from the jardin des plantes, and from which, as they continue to be multiplied by propagation, they soon find their way into the hands of nurserymen and private cultivators. The B.G. connected with the imperial palace at Schönbrunn, in Austria, and that of Berlin, are the greatest in Germany. The former, which was begun in 1753, by the emperor Francis I., was supplied with West India plants at enormous expense, the celebrated Jacquin being sent to procure them. The B. G. of Cambridge is perhaps the most worthy of notice among the numerous botanic gardens of America; and that of Calcutta deserves to be mentioned, as an important connecting-link between the B. gardens of Europe and the botany of India. It has enjoyed the care of a succession of eminent botanists, and has been very useful both in transmitting Indian plants to other parts of the world, and in introducing valuable productions of other countries into India.

In the laying out and arranging of B. gardens, different methods are adopted, mere convenience and beauty being in some cases primarily regarded, and these in other cases being sacrificed to the supposed interests of science in an attempted scientific arrangement. A perfect adherence to a botanical system is, for obvious reasons, impossible; but a scientific arrangement of the plants in natural groups, in so far as it can be conveniently accomplished, greatly increases the usefulness of a B.G., and facilitates the study of botany. Sometimes houses are devoted to particular orders of plants, as palms, heaths, or orchids; sometimes to plants of particular habits, as aquatic plants; and sometimes portions of the garden are advantageously devoted to the exhibition, at one view, of plants valuable for particular uses, as cereals or corn-plants, plants yielding fiber, etc.

BOTANIC GARDEN (ante) of Harvard university was founded in 1805, in March; William Dandridge Peck was chosen professor. He began to lay out the garden, but the next year went to Europe to examine similar institutions. There was a scarcity of money, and the garden languished for years. It was put in charge (about 1822) of Thomas Nuttall, an English botanist, who, in 1833, suddenly deserted his post to make a tour across the continent and to the Sandwich islands. In 1842, Dr. Asa Gray was appointed Fisher professor of natural history, on the endowment given by Dr. Fisher of Beverly. In 1848, a study was built for a herbarium, and used for botanical instructions. In 1857, a new and larger conservatory was built, and in 1864, the herbarium was erected, the gift of Nathaniel Thayer. After much exertion, the establishment was practically completed in 1871 by the fitting up of a lecture-room and a laboratory, and an extension of the conservatory, thus connecting the herbarium on one side and the conservatory on the other into a continuous range, and affording the means of giving the whole botanical instruction throughout the year at the garden, in connection with the materials and collections which illustrated it. An extensive botanic garden is connected with the department of agriculture at Washington, and there are others more or less important in various parts of the country.

At Buitenzorg, in the island of Java, near the foot of Mt. Salak, are botanic gardens which have been called the finest in the world. Here one can wander for hours through avenues of every kind of tropical palm. The orchids are a splendid collection, containing specimens of nearly every known kind of lælia, dendrobium, eria, bolbophyllum, cypripedium, and a host of others.

There are huge beds of ferns; plantations of gigantic yucca and pandanus, interspersed with dracænæ and eucharis; a forest of tree ferns, many of them upward of 30 ft. high; with bamboo avenues, and nearly every palm. Among them grow enormous creepers, one of which winds in circles about the ground, and then goes over a palmtree and down again, upward of 300 ft. long; 70 yards alone are on the ground.

BOTANOMANCY, divination by means of plants. See DIVINATION.

BOTANY (Gr. botane, an herb), the science which treats of the vegetable kingdom (see PLANT). Everything that relates to plants is included in this science; there are, therefore, several great branches of it, in many respects very different from each other. Of these branches of the science, some, relating to plants in general, rather than to particular kinds or species, are sometimes included under the designation of general B. (sometimes called phytonomy; Gr. phyton, a plant, and nomos, a law); whilst those which relate to particular species, their distinctive characters, distribution, etc., are, in like manner, comprehended under the term special botany.-In the former of these departments, the first place must be assigned to`structural B., also called organology, or organography, which has for its subject the structure of plants, the textures of which they are composed, and their various organs. Subordinate to this are the study of the elementary tissues of plants, sometimes called vegetable histology (see HISTOLOGY), and that of the anatomy of plants, sometimes called phytotomy (Gr. phyton, a plant, and tome, a cutting); both of which have recently been prosecuted with great assiduity. In both, the microscope is an indispensable instrument, and by means of it all the important discoveries of modern times have been made. Intimately connected with these is mor phology (Gr. morphos, a form, and logos, a discourse), that branch of botanical science which relates to what has been called the metamorphosis of organs, or, in other words, the gradual transmutation of leaves by the processes of vegetable life into the various organs with which a plant is provided, and their consequent assumption of new forms and

Botany.

adaptation to new uses. This branch of B., entirely of recent origin, has been described as being in the vegetable what comparative anatomy is in the animal kingdom, and has now become the exposition of an admitted great general law, almost equally important in reference to structural B. and to vegetable physiology. Vegetable physiology or physi ological B. treats of the various kinds of organic activity which are displayed in the life of plants. It is based upon structural B., an intimate acquaintance with which is indispensable to the study of it. The arguments or illustrations of natural theology, derived from B., are chiefly taken from structural B. and vegetable physiology considered together, the wisdom of the Creator appearing in his works equally in their structure and in the adaptation of all their organs to their respective wonderful functions. In connection with vegetable physiology, another branch of science claims attention-VEGETABLE CHEMISTRY, of which there are two parts-an examination of the products of the living processes in plants, which, with all its well-known difficulty, is still comparatively easy; and an inquiry into these processes themselves, with respect to the chemical changes effected in them-an investigation of the secrets of that chemistry of nature which so far excels all that has yet been accomplished in laboratories. This is, however, a branch of the science of chemistry rather than of B.; but it so far belongs to the latter, that although only subsidiary, it is useful and indispensable. Even mathematics and natural philosophy, however, have been called to the assistance of the philosophical botanist in his attempts to explain the phenomena of his own science.

Special B. has been rendered subservient to the study of general B., and errors in the former are also guarded against by dependence, to a certain extent, on the well-ascertained principles of the latter. A comprehensive view of the vegetable kingdom is indeed impossible without an inquiry into the number and peculiarities of the different species which it contains; but the attempt to classify and arrange these can only be successful when it is founded on a knowledge of general laws relating to all vegetable organisms. That the discoveries of a botanist may be made known, the description of species is necessary; and works devoted to this are sometimes called works of descriptive B. or of phytography (phyton, a plant, and graphe a writing). But in the description of plants, a multitude of terms must be employed, which almost exclusively belong to botanical science itself, whilst even those which are common to it with other departments of natural history, must be employed in senses modified by the peculiarities of the vege table kingdom. Many of the terms used are such as belong to structural B. and vegetable physiology; but many also—for example, adjectives which designate the particular forms of leaves, etc.-become familiar only when an acquaintance with them is sought to advance descriptive B., and a knowledge of the different species of plants. Great precision is necessary in the use of these terms, and from the want of it, the descriptions of the ancients and of travelers unacquainted with B. often leave it impossible to determine the particular species intended. This gives rise to what is sometimes called in botanical works terminology-an explanation of botanical terms, which, however, has no right to be regarded as a separate branch of science, or worthy of a distinct name; and the name which it has received is barbarous. When structural B. was little heeded, and little more was commonly supposed necessary for a botanist than a knowledge of species and the ability to distinguish them, "terminology" was often separately taught, and the student was required to commit long tables of terms and their meanings to memory—a difficulty placed in his way at the outset which was both formidable and repulsive, like that which the student of the Chinese language must expect to encounter in its alphabet. The necessity of classification and systematic arrangement in B. will be very obvious, if the multitude of different kinds of plants is considered, fully 120,000 species being already known and described, whilst great regions of the earth are still unexplored. The systematic arrangement of plants is sometimes called systematic B., sometimes taxological B. (Gr. taxis, order, and logos, a discourse), sometimes, less properly, taxology or taxonomy. The history and progress of the science have been marked by the different systems which have been proposed, and have prevailed at different times. These have, however, been of two very distinct kinds, founded upon very different principles, and particularly adapted to very different objects, and are respectively designated artificial and natural or physiological systems. Artificial systems are based upon some single class of characters, in the external parts of plants, without reference to the importance of these characters in what concerns the life of a plant, or the purpose for which it exists, and are chiefly adapted to the convenience of the student desirous of readily distinguishing species among the multitudes with which he has to deal. A work of descriptive B., arranged according to an artificial system, has been aptly likened to a dictionary in which the words are alphabetically arranged.

An artificial system cannot, however, serve the highest purposes of the science. But in framing a natural system, great difficulties are to be encountered, and imperfection of the system is necessarily to a certain extent involved in imperfection of the science. Based not upon one mere set of characters arbitrarily selected, but upon a consideration as far as possible of all characters which plants present, and not merely upon external forms viewed in themselves, but upon these and internal organization considered in their physiological relations, a natural system aims at exhibiting the real affinities which subsist in the vegetable kingdom; and evidently must be at all times liable to modifica tion, and capable of improvement, as botanical science advances, either through the dis