Botany.

most characteristic forms of vegetation. Then they displaced and succeeded the acrogens of the coal-floras, and gave their name to the "age of cycads," extending from the beginning of the triassic to the middle of the cretaceous age. They were in turn displaced by the conifers. In the tertiary age the cycads filled about the same position

as now.

Of the angiosperms much will be found under the title BOTANY (see ante). Their history comprises the larger part of modern botany. They appear in vast numbers quite abruptly in the upper part of the cretaceous formation. Many of the genera now living formed the forests of that period, and the fossil remains show that their appearance was much the same as now. Among the living genera represented were the oak, poplar, plane, willow, beech, sassafras, magnolia, fig, maple, walnut, tulip tree, etc. The tuliptree has but a single living representative, yet the genus began in the cretaceous age, in America; and in the miocene tertiary age a tree nearly like it grew in Greenland, Iceland, and in Europe down to Italy. The sassafras, having now but one species in America and one in the East Indies, dates back to the cretaceous age, and was the companion of the tulip-tree in Greenland and elsewhere. Magnolias, so grand a feature of American forests, were common in Europe during the tertiary period, but none are native there now. The fast-disappearing specimens, with the lone remnants of gigantic growth of the Yosemite, remind us of the magnificent arborescent flora of the American conti. nent in ages long gone by.

It is not easy to define ages in botany otherwise than by ages in geology. No trace of plants has been found in eozoic rocks. These rocks, however, contain no animal fossils, and it is supposed that if there had been deposits of either vegetable or animal matter, the metamorphism of the rocks is so absolute that no traces would be likely to remain. But beds of graphite found in the Laurentian rock-beds are by some scientists considered to indicate a vegetable origin; and one writer suggests that they may be of animal origin. Fucoids are said to have been found in the Cambrian rocks in England; and in the same rock in Sweden, and certain rocks in Wales, plant remains described as exogens have been found. Their character, however, is doubtful, and affords no real proof of development higher than that of sea-weeds. Fucoids are abundant in the lower Silurian, but usually with little or no trace of structure. There seems to be no satisfactory evidence of the deposit of land plants in the lower Silurian strata. Coming to the upper Silurian, we find the greater part of the plants to be sea-weeds. But here and there discoveries and indications tend to show the existence of land plants at about the end of the Silurian age. In the Devonian rocks fucoids are common. Trce-ferns have been found in the corniferous limestone of Ohio, indicating the existence of a highly organized flora on the land. In New York, Canada, and elsewhere, remains of an abundant flora have been found in the middle and upper Devonian rocks. The remarkable feature of Devonian flora is the prevalence of conifers and tree-ferns. The vegetation of the carboniferous age (age of coal) is important, but has been often described. More than 500 specimens of plants or parts of plants have been described. Much the greater portion consists of ferns, but few of them were arborescent. Next come the lycopods, then the equiseta. Of the latter group some were arborescent, and some were aquatic. The cycads, also, were represented; and the endogens, the latter by a few flowering plants. Conifers growing to the size of modern pines were abundant, but they were highland trees, and not likely to be found in coal deposits. Many fossil fruits have been found with the coal plants, such as nuts of conifers and seed-vessels of cycads.

Coming to the triassic flora of the mesozoic age there is a radical change, both with regard to flora and fauna. Ferns were numerous, but different from those found in the coal-beds, and less plentiful. The cycads are the prominent feature of triassic vegetation; they were so numerous and conspicuous as to give rise to the title "reign of the cycads." This branch of fossil botany has not been much studied in America, but some valuable collections have been made. The most remarkable of American plants of this period are cycads, and great monophyllous ferns. In some places petrified trunks of coniferous trees are abundant, proving that forests of very large trees covered some portions of the continent at that period. But so far no traces of angiosperms have been. found among triassic plants, nor have any Jurassic plants, so common in Europe, been discovered in this country.

The cydaceous flora appears to have remained with no particular change during the early part of the cretaceous era. About the commencement of the lower cretaceous strata, however, the reign of angiosperms" began, and in the cretaceous sandstones of New Jersey and of the west the remains of 100 species of arborescent angiosperms have been found, with few ferns and hardly any cycads among them. The facts show that the continent was covered with forests of broad-leaved trees, rivaling in size and beauty those of the present time; that among those old trees were oaks, magnolias, sycamores, willows, beeches, and others now common. The upper cretaceous deposits of Colorado and other territories contain beds of lignite, and many foreign plants. About 250 specimens, of which many are single leaves, have been found. The coal strata of Vancouver's island contain many signs of the leaves of angiosperms.

In the tertiary age, the angiosperms predominate, and the indications are that the flora was derived directly from that of the cretaceous era, the tertiary flora in turn giv ing birth to that of the present day. No traces have been found in this country of the

Bothwell.

flora of Europe of the cocene period. During the miocene period, fan-palms grew as far north as Canada, indicating that the region of the St. Lawrence then had a climate as warm as that of the gulf states at the present time. In the miocene tertiary period, the part of the continent now knows as British America and Alaska was covered with luxuriant vegetation, even to the shores of the Arctic ocean. In Greenland and Alaska many specimens of arborescent plants have been found. The similarity of many of these species to those found in Europe lead to the presumption of a land connection between the two continents; and the similarity of the flora of Japan with that of America would seem to indicate a land connection on that side also. The pliocene flora of America presents no very marked changes from that of the miocene, except in approaching more nearly to the flora of the present time. In the glacial era, the tertiary flora was forced southward, or destroyed. After the modification of temperature, the boreal plants, which in the ice period had covered the lowlands, moved northward or climbed the hills and mountains to find a natural temperature. The kindred character of alpine species in often widely separated places shows this fact.

After the manner of the geologists, the learned in fossil botany may divide the ancient flora into "ages," of which there are four: 1. The age of thallogens, including the Cambrian and Silurian divisions of geology, during which time sea-weeds were almost the only form of plants. 2. The age of acrogens, in the Devonian and carboniferous eras of geology, when ferns, etc., attained their wonderful development in size and number. 3. The age of gymnosperms, from the beginning of the triassic to the middle of the cretaceous era, when the cycads and conifers were over all the earth, and of greater relative importance than at any time before or since. 4. The age of angiosperms, from the middle of the cretaceous to the present time, of course including all existing flora. PALEONTOLOGY.

See

BOTANY BAY, a haven of New South Wales, in lat. 34° s., and long. 151° 15′ e., discovered by Cook, on his first voyage, in 1770, and named by him from the great num. ber of new plants in its vicinity-a characteristic, however, rather of Australia in general than of this particular locality. In 1787, it received England's first penal colony in the east; and though it was supplanted the very next year by Port Jackson, a vastly superior harbor immediately to the n. of it, yet it long continued to be the popular designation, not merely of this convict settlement, but of the Australian convict settlements generally. On the shore of B. B. there was erected, in 1825, a column to the memory of that eminent French navigator, the unfortunate La Perouse.

BOT ETOURT, a co. in s. w. Virginia, on the James river; intersected by the Atlantic, Ohio and Mississippi railroad; 500 sq.m.; pop. '70, 11,329-3163 colored; in '80, 15,750; the Blue ridge is its s.e. boundary; Middle mountain is on the n.w. border, and the Peaks of Otter are on the Bedford co. line. Cereals and tobacco are the chief productions. Co. seat, Fincastle.

BOTETOURT, SIR NORBORNE BERKELEY, Lord, 1717-70; an English statesman, governor of the colony of Virginia in 1768, dying there two years later. He favored the colonists and opposed parliamentary taxation. He was the last of the barons of Botetourt.

BOTH, JOHN and ANDREW, two celebrated painters, who, being united in their works like Beaumont and Fletcher, are, like them, usually spoken of together, were born at Utrecht, where their father was a painter on glass-John in 1610; the date of Andrew's birth is not known. After studying under Abraham Bloemart, the brothers went to Italy, where they soon won for themselves a high reputation. John painted landscapes, adopting Claude for his model, while Andrew filled in the figures after the style of Bamboccio, and in so careful a manner that the pictures looked like the work of one hand. John's landscapes are characterized by delicious warmth of sky, softness of distance, and general truthfulness to nature; even the different hours of the day may be distinguished in some of his best pictures, so careful are his tints. The works of the brothers are still in great repute, and bring high prices whenever they are offered for sale. One of the brothers was accidentally drowned in a canal in Venice in 1650; the other brother then settled in Utrecht, where he died six years afterwards.

BO THIE (from the Gaelic bothag) signified originally a humble cottage or hut, but for a considerable number of years the term has been more popularly applied to a barely furnished, generally uncomfortable habitation for farm-servants. Though bothies are principally confined to the eastern and north-eastern counties of Scotland, a few have spread over a much wider area. The bothie, strictly speaking, of modern times is situated either under the same roof as the stable, or, oftener, at a short distance from the steading. While the cubic contents are invariably disproportionate to the number of inmates, the furnishings are of an uninviting, sometimes actually repulsive character. One long roughly manufactured table, a few long stools, a chair or two, a number of victual bunks, a few wooden cups or bowls, and a pot or two, constitute the bulk of the fittings. The inhabitants are generally unmarried men, who frequently have their own food to prepare. Some of the larger farmers afford a woman for cooking and cleaning the bothie. Huddled together in this unnatural way, without the refining influence of the heads of families or the female sex, it is not surprising that the inhabitants of the

bothie often acquire boorish and sometimes immoral habits. Public moralists decry the bothie vehemently. The men themselves do not raise their voice loudly, if at all, against it; and some influential farmers (amongst whom was the late Mr. M'Combie) seem to regard it, if an evil, as a necessary one, in present circumstances. The bands of Irish and Highland females living together in the e. Lothian cottages, may be ranked as bothieites, and do not strengthen the argument for the general system. Though the bothie system is only one of several foul blots on the agricultural escutcheon affecting the laborers, it is diminishing, as farm cottages increase, and must soon, under the pressure of public opinion and the growing desire for social elevation, be reduced to a minimum, if not entirely abolished.

BOTHNIA, the name formerly given to a country of northern Europe, extending along the e. and w. shores of the gulf of Bothnia (q.v.), the eastern portion now being comprised in Finland (q.v.), and the western forming the Swedish governments of Pitea and Umea.

BOTHNIA, GULF OF, the part of the Baltic sea which lies to the n. of the isle of Aland, having on its eastern shore Finland, on the western, Sweden and Lapland, with Tornea for its northern limit. It extends from lat. 60° to 66° n., and long. 17° to 25° 35' c., its greatest length being about 400 m., and its average breadth 100 m. Its depth varies from 20 to 50 fathoms, but both along its shores, and in the middle, are many small islands, sand-banks, rocks, and cliffs, called skaers, which render the navigation difficult; though on the whole it is less dangerous than other parts of the Baltic, and has many good harbors. The rivers which fall into this gulf, both from Sweden and Finland, are numerous; and the waters of the gulf itself are but slightly salt. In winter, it is usually so hard frozen that it can be crossed by sledges.

BOTHRIOCEPH'ALUS (Gr. bothrion, a little pit, and cephale, a head), a genus of intestinal worms, belonging to the order of cestoid worms (q.v.), and included, until recently, in the genus tania (tape-worm, q.v). The head in this genus is not furnished with four sucking disks, as in the true tape-worms, but with two lateral longitudinal hollows, which seem to serve only for adhesion by means of a partial vacuum, and to have nothing to do with nutrition. Nourishment is indeed supposed to be obtained entirely by the imbibing of fluids through the entire length of the worm; and whilst this process of imbibing takes place, there is also an exudation-as exosmose accompanies endosmose (q.v.) in the roots of plants-of peculiar oleaginous drops, which may probably be in part the cause of the injurious effects produced by these worms upon the health of the animals infested by them. The species of B. are very abundant in predaceous fishes, and occur more sparingly in fish-eating birds; the immature and sexless young being found in fishes and inferior aquatic animals, either in peculiar cysts, or in the intestinal canal. Sticklebacks are often seen distended to an unusual size by a species of B. which lies free in the cavity of the abdomen; but in the stickleback its joints and sexual organs always remain undeveloped; it is only when the stickleback has been digested in a bird's stomach, that the B., released, and finding itself at last in suitable circumstances, acquires its mature form, becoming an inhabitant of the bird's intestines. Only one species of B. occurs in man, B. latus, which is at once distinguished from the common tape-worm by the different form of its segments, but has been often confounded with another species of tape-worm, under the name of broad tape-worm. The segments are much broader than they are long, and each contains organs of reproduction. The worm is strictly androgynous. It is scarcely known in Britain, but is of frequent occurrence in some parts of Europe, and sometimes attains a length of 15 ft. or upwards; and a coil of these worms is not unfrequently expelled at once from the patient. The B. is, however, much more easily expelled than the true tape-worms. The same means are employed. The geographical distribution of this worm, which is most frequent in low marshy countries, has led to the conjecture, that its youngest brood may inhabit some of the smallest aquatic animals, and that it may find its way into human beings by their eating salads, fruit which grows near the ground, or the like.

BOTHWELL, a co. in Ontario, Canada, on lake Erie and St. Clair river; traversed by the Great Western railway; 547 sq.m.; pop. '81, 22,477. Petroleum is one of the chief productions.

BOTHWELL, a small village in Bothwell parish, in Lanarkshire, on the right bank of the Clyde, 8 m. e.s.e. of Glasgow. The river is here crossed by the celebrated bridge, the place of the bloody encounter between the Covenanters and Monmouth in 1679, when the former were defeated. Near the village are the magnificent Norman ruins of Bothwell castle, at the foot of which the Clyde washes the fine scenery of “ 'Bothwell bank," celebrated in Scottish song. Pop. '81, 1520.

BOTHWELL, JAMES HEPBURN, fourth earl of, was b. about 1526. On his father's death in 1556, he succeeded to the great inheritance which made the earl of Bothwell the most powerful noble in the s. of Scotland. At first, he opposed the reformation party, but on their accession to power he easily changed his politics; and, in 1561, formed one of the deputation of lords sent to convey the youthful queen of Scotland to her kingdom. He was shortly after made a privy-councilor; but his violence and misconduct soon became intolerable, and he was ordered to quit Edinburgh. In Mar.,

1562, he and the earl of Arran were committed to the castle for conspiring to seize the queen's person. B. made his escape, was recaptured at Holy island, again got free, and sailed to France. He speedily returned, but finding Moray close on his trail, embarked for the continent. Not appearing at his trial, he was outlawed. In 1565, after the queen's marriage with Darnley, he re-appeared, and having strongly espoused her cause against Moray and his party, was suddenly restored to favor, and even high influence. In Oct., 1566, while performing a judicial tour in Liddesdale, he was attacked and wounded, and the queen manifested her interest in his danger by riding 20 m. and back to see him, a journey which brought on a dangerous fever. At Craigmillar, some time after, B. attempted, unsuccessfully, to overrule her objections to a divorce from Darnley. A more thorough-going method was open to him, and on the night of 9th Feb., 1567, Darnley was blown up at the Kirk of Field. The public voice loudly charged B. with the murder, but he was not formally indicted till the 28th March. He came to the trial attended by 4000 followers, and received an easy acquittal. Two days after, he carried the sword of state before the queen at the opening of parliament, and at its close, all his lands and offices were confirmed to him, in consideration of his “gret and manifold gude service done and performit not only to her hienes' honour, weil, and estimatioun, but alsua to the comone weil of the realme and leiges thairof." At a supper on the following night, the leading nobles signed a bond approving of Bothwell's acquittal, and commending him as a fit husband to the queen, pledging themselves to stand by him. On the 26th April, B., accompanied by a strong force, carried off the queen to Dunbar castle; on the 6th May he was divorced from his wife; and on the 15th his marriage with Mary was solemnized at Holyrood. He had previously been created duke of Orkney. His guilty triumph was very short; the wrath of the nation was roused; at the end of one month, Mary was a prisoner in Edinburgh, and B., pursued in his voyage to the Orkneys, fied to Denmark. There he was seized, imprisoned, and died in 1578, leaving no heirs. His titles and estates were forfeited to the crown.

BOTOCU'DOS, or AYMBORES, a Brazilian people on the Rio Doce and Rio Pardo, who are said to resemble Chinese. There are about 4000 of them; brave but treacherous, and troublesome to the government. They have the hideous custom of wearing a block of wood in the lower lip, forcing the lip to project 2 or 3 in. in a right angle to the jaw; they also wear great wooden ornaments in their ears. See illus., PATAGONIA, ETC., vol. XI., p. 368, figs. 2, 3, 6; p. 560, PERU, figs. 25-28

BOTONE, OF BOTONNY. In heraldry, a cross botoné is a cross of which the ends are in the form of buds or buttons.

BOTOSHAN', or BOOTUSHA'NI, a city in Roumania, 60 m. n. w. of Jassy; pop. 79. 39,941. It contains a hospital and many churches and synagogues, and is the seat of an important fair.

BO TREE, the name given in Ceylon to the PEEPUL (q.v.) of India (ficus religiosa). It is held sacred by the Buddhists, and planted close by every temple, attracting almost as much veneration as the statue of Buddha itself.—The B. T. of the sacred city Anarajapoora, is in all probability the oldest tree in the world, of which the age can be ascertained by historical evidence. It was planted in 288 B.C., and sir James Emerson Tennent, in his work on Ceylon, published in 1859, gives reasons for believing that the tree was then really the wonderful age of 2147 years; and refers to historic documents in which it is raentioned at different dates, as 182 A.D., 223 A.D., and so on to the present day. This tree is invested, in the estimation of the Buddhists, with wonderful sanctity. "To it," says sir James, "kings have even dedicated their dominions in testimony of their belief that it is a branch of the identical fig-tree under which Gotama Buddha reclined at Uruwelaya when he underwent his apotheosis." Its leaves are carried away as treasures by pilgrims; but it is too sacred to be touched with a knife, and therefore they are only gathered when they fall.

BOTRY CHIUM, a genus of ferns, of the division ophioglossen, having the spore-cases (or seed-vessels) distinct, sub-globose, clustered at the margin, and on one side of a pinnated rachis (an altered frond), 2-valved, without any trace of an elastic ring, and opening transversely. The only British species B. lunaria, MooNWORT, a little plant, pretty frequent in dry mountain pasture, but not applied to any particular use. A species more worthy of notice is B. virginicum, of which the geographical distribution is very remarkable. It abounds in many parts of the United States of America, the mountains of Mexico, etc., in Australia, in some parts of Asia, as the Himalaya mountains; and is found also in Norway, although in no other part of Europe. It is large and succulent, and is boiled and eaten in the Himalaya, in New Zealand, etc. It is called RATTLESNAKE FERN in some parts of America, from its growing in places where rattlesnakes are found. In the U. S, B. virginicum ranges from Washington to Colorado and Texas, and eastward, including Florida. B. lunaria ranges from Colorado to New England. lake Superior, and sparingly northward. B. simplex, a rare species with small fronds, is found from California and Yellowstone park to lake Superior and eastward. A variety, compositum, occurs in alpine regions. B. lanceolatum ranges from Colorado to lake Superior, Ohio, New Jersey, and New England. B. lunarioides is found from Massachusetts to Florida in dry, rich woods and shady pastures. It has two varieties: obliquum and dissectum. B. ternatum, a variable species, occurs throughout North America, See illus., FERNS, ETC., vol. V., p. 796, fig. 10.

BOTRY'TIS, a genus of fungi, of the division hyphomycetes, containing many of the plants commonly called MoLD (q.v.) and MILDEW (q.v.). The plants consist of a mycelium (see FUNGI) of more or less entangled threads, which are composed of rows of cells, with shoots of the same nature rising up from them, and bearing the fructification at their extremity. Some of them attack the fibers of vegetable fabrics, such as linen and cotton, in damp places, the decayed stems of plants, decaying fruit, etc. Some are found on living animal tissues, whether always previously diseased or not is a question still unsettled, although the probability appears to be that they make their appearance only where there is already disease, which, however, they modify or entirely change. A remarkable species of this section of the genus is the MUSCARDINE (q.v.), or SILKWORM ROT.-A section of the genus, in many respects of particular interest, and which some botanists have endeavored to separate into a distinct genus, consists of species which grow among living vegetable tissues. The threads of the mycelium creep among the loose cells of the under side of the leaves, and send up their fertile shoots through the stomata (see LEAVES and STOMATA). Many of the species are extremely destructive to particular plants, as B. parasitica to turnips. But B. infestans is, of all the species, the subject of greatest interest, the potato disease being confidently ascribed to it by some observers, among whom is sometimes named Mr. Berkeley, and the opinion of no living botanist is entitled to greater respect upon a point connected with this branch of the science; but Mr. Berkeley himself states his opinion very guardedly. "The decay of the leaves and haulm in the potato murrain," he says, "is certainly due to botrytis infestans; and its appearance in the diseased tissues of the tubers, when exposed to the air, makes it at least probable that it has a close connection with that destructive murrain, which, in many instances, does not appear alone, but accompanied by other diseases. The mold may be traced spreading round the edges of the brown spots on the leaves, and soon destroying the tissue on which it was developed." (Art. Botrytis in Morton's Cyclopædia of Agriculture.) The destruction results not only from the fungus feeding upon the juices of the plant, but from its obstructing the elaboration of the sap and all the processes which in a healthy state take place at the surface of the leaf.-The whole subject of the propagation of fungi of this kind is involved in great obscurity. They are indeed seen to produce seeds (or spores) in great abundance, but the doubtful question is, how these reach the place where they are to grow, whether from the surface of the leaf, to which it is objected that the stomata are too small to admit them, or, as Mr. Berkeley thinks, from within the plant. See POTATO DISEASE.

BOTTA, CARLO GIUSEPPE GUGLIELMO, an Italian poet and historian, b. in 1766 at S. Giorgio del Canavese, in Piedmont. He studied medicine in Turin. In 1794, he became a physician to the French army, and in 1799, he, Carlo Aurelio de Bossi, and Carlo Giulio, were appointed the provisional government of Piedmont. They were known as Il triumvirato de tre' Carli. After the battle of Marengo, he became a member of the Piedmontese Consulta. In the Corps Legislatif, he gave offense to Napoleon, by designating his government as despotic. In 1830, he was allowed to return to his native town, and was pensioned by Charles Albert. He died in Paris, 10th Aug., 1837. Of his works of earlier date, the following may be mentioned, in which his admirable historic style is gradually developed: Description de l'Ile de Corfu (2 vols., Par. 1799); Souvenirs d'un Voyage en Dalmatie (Tur. 1802); Précis Historique de la Maison de Savoie (Par. 1803); Histoire de l'Amérique (Par. 1809). His epic poem in twelve books, Il Camillo o Vejo Conquistata (Par. 1816), was also favorably received. But his most important works are his Storia d'Italia dal 1789 al 1814 (Par. 1824), which has gone through many editions, and for which he received the quinquennial prize of 1000 Tuscan dollars, founded by the grand duke Ferdinand II. in 1814, in the Accademia della Crusca at Florence; his Histoire des Peuples d'Italie (3 vols., Par. 1825), in which he denies to the Christian religion and to philosophy the credit of having civilized Europe, and ascribes it to the restoration of learning; and the Storia d'Italia dal 1490 al 1814 (20 vols., Par. 1832), which consists of Guicciardini's work (1490-1534), Botta's continuation of it (1535-1789), and the above-mentioned Storia d'Italia.

BOTTA, PAUL EMILE, a distinguished French archæologist and traveler, the son of the preceding, was b. in 1805. While yet young, he undertook a voyage round the world, and remained long about the western coasts of America, where he zealously collected treasures of natural history. In the year 1830 he went to Egypt, where he entered into the service of Mehemet Ali as a physician, and in this capacity accompanied the Egyptian expedition to Sennaar. Here he formed a very considerable zoological collection, with which he returned to Cairo in 1833. The French government now appointed him consul in Alexandria, from which he undertook a journey to Arabia, the results of which he gave to the world in a work entitled Relation d'un Voyage dans l' Yémen, entrepris 1837, pour le Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle de Paris (Par. 1814). From Alexandria the government sent him as consular agent to Mosul, and at this place, at the instigation of the German orientalist Julius Mohl, he commenced a series of discoveries which form an epoch in archæological science. Early in the spring of 1843, B. began his diggings in the heaps of ruins near the Tigris, for monuments of Assyrian antiquity, and the Journal Asiatique soon contained accounts of the success with which his enterprise and perseverance were rewarded, and also disquisi