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mons, and was also chosen in April, by the states of lower Austria, one of their representatives in the central commission of the provincial states of Austria.

In this, the outset of his political career, B. already showed a leaning to those views which he afterwards manifested as minister. He advocated the centralization of the Austrian monarchy, and declared himself against the independence of Hungary, as well as against the entry of the German provinces of Austria into the German confederation. But he also desired an extension of the basis of the states, and of their parliamentary influence in the direction of public affairs. During the occurrences of the 15th of May, 1848, B. kept away from Vienna. When, after these occurrences, the old liberal opposition came to the helm, B. undertook the ministry of justice. He now entered with talent and energy into the remodeling of the whole system of Austrian law. On the other hand, the part he took in the assembly brought upon him the hatred of the "left,' and of the democratic party generally. The opposition was particularly bitter on the question of removing the burdens from peasant proprietors, on which B. maintained the principle of compensation, and wished a part of that compensation to be made good by those who had hitherto borne the burdens in question. His policy, also, with regard to Hungarian affairs met with violent opposition from the " "left. In the events of the 6th of Oct., 1848, B. would have fallen a victim to popular fury, like the war-minister Latour, had he not found an opportunity of withdrawing from pursuit. On the formation of the Schwartzenberg-Stadion ministry, he again took the portfolio of justice, and participated in the measures regarding Hungary and all the other important steps taken by that ministry. On the withdrawal of Stadion in May, 1849, B. took his place at the head of the ministry of the interior, from which he was sent, in 1859, as plenipotentiary to Rome-a mission which terminated in 1865. Among his most important labors as minister of the interior are the constitutions for the different crown-lands, as well as the organization of their political administration.

BACH, JOHANN CHRISTIAN, 1735-82; eleventh son of Johann Sebastian B., was chosen one of the organists of Milan cathedral, but was occupied mainly in composition for the voice. In 1763, he produced, in London, the opera of Orione, which was successful. Schubert says: "This man had it in his power to be whatever he would, and he may well be compared to the Proteus of fable. Now he spouts water; now he breathes forth flame. In the midst of the trivialities of his fashionable style, the giant spirit of his father may be discovered."

BACH, JOHANN CHRISTOPH, 1643-1703; eldest son of Heinrich, and one of the best organists and composers of his time. His compositions show "that he was truly a great man, as rich in invention as he was strong in the power of musical expression of emotion."

BACH, JOHANN CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH, 1732-95; tenth son of Johann Sebastian, author of numerous compositions, ecclesiastical and secular. He was nearly all his life kapellmeister to the duke of Lippe-Schaumburg.

BACH, JOHANN SEBASTIAN, a celebrated musician, b. at Eisenach, upper Saxony, in Mar., 1685. When he was ten years old, his father, who was a musician at Eisenach, died, and B. sought the protection of an elder brother, who dying soon after, he was again left destitute, and, to earn a livelihood, entered the choir of St. Michael's, Lüne burg, as a soprano singer. In 1703, he became court-musician at Weimar, and the following year, organist to a new church at Arnstadt. His reputation in this capacity SOOL spread, and in 1708 he was appointed court-organist at Weimar, by the reigning duke. While holding this office, he labored assiduously to make himself master of every branch of music. In 1717, he was made director of concerts, and six years afterwards, director of music, and cantor to St. Thomas's school, Leipsic, an appointment whch he held to his death. About ten years later, the honorary distinctions of kapellmeister to the duke of Weissenfels, and court composer to the king of Poland, were conferred upon him. B., who had a son in the service of Frederick the great, received a pressing request to visit Potsdam on the occasion of a concert there. He went, and acquitted himself greatly to the satisfaction of that monarch, some of whose music he played at first sight. B.'s close studies affected his eyes, and an operation, designed to benefit them, left him totally blind, and hastened his death, which took place in July, 1750. With the exception of Handel, B. had no rival as an organist; and his compositions for the organ have a deservedly high reputation. They are too elaborate, however, ever to become very popular, though his fame as a composer is sure to advance with the progress of scientific musical culture. The highly educated musician will best appreciate the grandeur of some of his works. In 1850, a Bach society for the study and practice of his compositions was formed in London, and since that time they have often been publicly performed in this country. Three of his sons were also musicians of some note. See lives by Hilgenfeld (1850), Bilter (1865; 2d ed. 1881), and Spitta (2 vols. 1873-80).

BACH, KARL PHILIPP EMANUEL, 1714-88; second son of Johann Sebastian. He was probably the most highly gifted of the eleven brothers, and his influence on the development of certain musical forms gives him a prominent place in the history of the art. He studied in the Thomas school, and afterwards in the university of Leipsic, where jurisprudence was his preference. In 1738, he went to Berlin, and soon afterwards was

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appointed chamber-musician to Frederick the great. In 1767, he became kapellmeister at Hamburg, where he passed the remainder of his life. His most ambitious composition is the oratorio of Israel in the Wilderness. The greater portion of his numerous works was written for his favorite instrument, the clavier (the piano of that day). His essay on The True Method of Harpsichord Playing was long a standard work. Clementi professed to have derived from B. his distinctive style of piano-forte playing, and Haydn is said to have acknowledged his deep obligation to B.'s works. It was from these works that Haydn learned the form of the sonata and symphony, of which B. "may fairly claim to have been the originator, though Haydn enriched it and gave it permanence. As a psalm, ode, and song writer, B. surpassed his contemporaries, and gained great popularity. His idea of the purpose of music he explained by saying: "In my opinion the grand object of music is to touch the heart, and this end can never be obtained by mere noise, drumming, and arpeggios; at all events not by me."

BACH, VEIT, a German Protestant of Presburg, Hungary, by trade a baker; founder of the remarkable musical family of Bach.

BACH, WILHELM FRIEDMANN, 1710-84; eldest son of John Sebastian. He was a natural musician, nearly rivaling Mozart in precocity, and remarkable for extemporane ous composing. At Leipsic university he studied jurisprudence and mathematics; but music was not neglected. He was organist of St. Sophia's church, Dresden, and director and organist at Halle. Though acknowledged to possess the highest genius, he was so coarse, rude, and ill-tempered as to be unbearable. He was also strangely absent-minded, and a slave to drink.

BACH'ARACH, a small t. of Rhenish Prussia, romantically situated on the left bank of the Rhine, 22 m. above Coblenz. It has a pop. of about 1900, with a brisk trade and a good deal of commerce by river-craft. It is said to have derived its name from Bacchus (Bacchi are), and the vine is still largely cultivated in the neighborhood-the wine produced being of a superior quality. B. is noteworthy also as the place where Blucher crossed the Rhine, on Jan. 1, 1814.

BACHE, ALEXANDER DALLAS, 1806-67, an American physicist; b. in Philadelphia. He was a grandson of Benjamin Franklin; graduated at West Point, as lieutenant of engineers, in 1825, remaining some time in the academy as a teacher. He was employed under col. Totten on the fortifications at Newport, where he married Nancy Clarke Fowler. B. was professor of natural philosophy and chemistry in the university of Pennsylvania, and an early member of the Franklin institute, the journals of which gave an account of his scientific labors. In company with others he built an observatory in which, for the first time in the United States, the periods of the daily variations of the magnetic needle were fully determined, and other interesting observations made. In 1836, he became president of the trustees of Girard college, and visited Europe to examine educational systems for the information of the board, who were about to arrange the plan of the institution. His report in 1838 was of great value in suggesting improvements in our educational system. Before the college was organized, B. established a system of free education in Philadelphia, serving for a time gratuitously, at the same time assisting the British association in the examination of meteorological and magnetic phenomena. In 1842, he returned to his professorship in the university, and in 1843 was appointed successor to Hassler in the U. S. coast survey. This important service he reorganized and brought to its present recognized efficiency. He was also light-house commissioner, superintendent of weights and measures, regent of the Smithsonian institution, vice-president of the U. S. sanitary commission, received the degree of LL.D. from several colleges, medals from foreign governments and learned bodies, was president of the American philosophical society, president of the association for the advancement of science, and associate of many important scientific institutions at home and abroad. He gave $42,000 to the national academy of science for the promotion of its object. His important works are: Observations at the Magnetic and Meteorological Obserpatory of Girard College, reports on weights and measures, and various essays in the Proceedings of the Association for the Advancement of Science.

BACHE, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, b. Va., 1801; great-grandson of Benjamin Franklin; graduated at Princeton, and in medicine at Pennsylvania university; assistant-surgeon in the army in 1824, and surgeon in 1828; professor of natural science and natural religion in Kenyon college; fleet surgeon of the Mediterranean squadron in 1841, and of the Brazil squadron in 1848. He established at New York the laboratory that supplied the medical department of the navy, and was director from 1855 to 1871, rendering important service to the union armies during the rebellion by supplying the laboratory from his own resources. In 1871, he was made medical director, with the rank of commodore.

BACHE, RICHARD, b. England, 1737; d. Penn., 1811; a Philadelphia merchant, son in-law of Benjamin Franklin, and first U. S. postmaster-general.

BACHE, SARAH, only daughter of Benjamin Franklin, 1744-1808. During the revolution she was active in collecting clothing and money for the suffering patriot armies, at one time employing more than 2000 women and girls in making garments for sol

diers. She also served in the hospitals, and was otherwise noted for patriotism and benevolence.

BACHELOR (Fr. bachelier, Lat. baccalaureus, or, as it is variously written in old documents, baccalareus, bacularius, and bacillarius). This word, which first makes its appearance in middle-age Latin, is of very uncertain etymology, and its primary meaning is consequently involved in obscurity. The usual derivation, from bacca laurea, a laurel berry, gives us little help; the Spanish bachillir, which means at once a babbler and a master of arts, taken in conjunction with the Portuguese bacharel and bacillo, a shoot or twig of the vine (from the Latin baculus or baculum, a stick or shoot), and the French bachelette, a damsel, are more plausible. It is derived, perhaps, with most probability, through French from the low Latin baccalarius, a farm servant, from bacca (vacca), á COW. Odd though it seems, this will connect fairly with all the special meanings of the word given by Ducange. 1. It was used, he says, to indicate a person who cultivated certain portions of church-lands called baccalaria, a feu belonging to an inferior vassal. 2. It indicated monks who were still in the first stages of monkhood. 3. It was used by later writers to indicate persons in the first or probationary stage of knighthood; i.e., not esquires simply, but knights who, from poverty and the insufficient number of their retainers-from their possessing, perhaps, only the baccalaria above referred to-or, from nonage, had not yet raised their banner in the field (leré bannière). 4. It was adopted to indicate the first grade or step in the career of university life. As an academical title, it was first introduced by pope Gregory IX in the 13th c., into the university of Paris, to denote a candidate who had undergone his first academical trials, and was authorized to give lectures, but was not yet admitted to the rank of an independent master or doctor. At a later period it was introduced into the other faculties as the lowest academical honor, and adopted by the other universities of Europe (see DEGREES, UNIVERSITY), and in this sense the Latin form came to be written at first through mere word-play baccalaureus, as if connected with bacca lauri, laurel berry." 5. It came to be used in its popular meaning of an unmarried man, who was thus regarded as a candidate or probationer for matrimony.

The legislation of almost every country, at some period of its history, has imposed penalties on male celibates or bachelors, on the principle that every citizen is bound to rear up legitimate children to the state. By the Jews, the command, Be fruitful and multiply," was interpreted strictly, and every Hebrew regarded marriage as a duty. In Sparta, where the interests of the individual were entirely sunk in those of the state, criminal proceedings were authorized by the laws of Lycurgus not only against those who neglected to marry, but against those who, from marrying late in life, or any other cause, formed such alliances as rendered the procreation of healthy children unlikely. By the laws of Solon, celibacy was also treated as a crime, though the practice of interfering with the feelings of the individual in this respect early fell into desuetude at Athens. At Rome, penalties and disabilities were imposed on unmarried men from an early period, and latterly on unmarried women also. In the allotment of the Campanian lands, Julius Cæsar gave portions only to those who had three or more children; and in later times we have the jus trium (quatuor et quinque) liberorum. The most important provisions on this subject are contained in the law (or rather the laws, for it consisted of an act and an amended act) called Lex Julia et papia poppæa, the first portion of which belongs probably to 18 B.C., and the second portion to 9 A.D. In addition to various other provisions regarding marriage, this law imposed penalties on those who lived in a state of celibacy after a certain age. No unmarried person could take a legacy, whether of a portion or of the whole possessions of a deceased person, unless he complied with the law-i.e., got married within 100 days from the testator's death. Widows were at first allowed 1 year from their husbands' death, and divorced women 6 months from the time of the divorce, before they came within the penalties of the law; and these periods were afterwards extended to 2 years, and 1 year and 6 months respectively. The original provisions of the law did not apply to men beyond 60, or women above 50, but they were extended to them by subsequent enactments, and made perpetual even in case of their marrying. The senatus consultum passed in the time of Claudius, however, again exempted men above 60 who married wives under 50, as from their unions it was supposed there was a fair prospect of issue. Childless married persons, moreover, from the ages of 25 to 60 in males, and 20 to 50 in females, were subject to the penalties of the ler, to the extent of losing one-half of any inheritance or legacy which might be bequeathed to them. The lex papia also contained a provision by which a candidate who had several children was preferred to one who had fewer; and various other premiums on fruitfulness were held out both at Rome and in the provinces.

In Britain, there are numerous instances of additional or higher taxes being imposed on bachelors and widowers, but apparently more with a view to the revenue than with any other object. Of this 6 and 7 Will. III. c. 6, which was passed in 1695, and which granted to his majesty certain rates and duties upon marriages, births, and burials, and upon bachelors and widowers for five years, "for carrying on the war against France with vigor," is an instance; and another, probably, may be found in the higher charge

for the servants of bachelors, first imposed by Mr. Pitt in 1785, and continued for a considerable time. By 52 George III. c. 93, unmarried daughters of persons alive were exempted from the tax upon hair-powder; and in the income-tax of 1798, deductions were made on account of children, 5 per cent being allowed to a person who had a family, and whose income was above £60, and under £400 a year, corresponding deductions being made in other cases. Much might be said in favor of such distinctions, on the ground of expediency, as they enable the government to impose a higher taxation, by lessening the burden on those members of the community who are most likely to complain; but their recognition in practice would, no doubt, be regarded as impossible by the financiers of our day, who have hitherto failed to distinguish between income derived from realized property and from personal labor.

BACHELOR, KNIGHT (qu. bas chevalier), the lowest grade of knighthood, now only conferred in the United Kingdom. Originally, like all knighthood, a military distinc tion, knighthood of this description came to be often bestowed on civilians, and in recent times it has frequently been conferred for no weightier service than carrying a congratulatory address to court. It is generally conferred by the sovereign by a verbal declaration accompanied with the imposition of the sword, and without any patent or instrument. The person who is to receive the honor kneels down before the sovereign, who touches him on the shoulder with a naked sword, saying, in French,“ Sois chevalier au nom de Dieu" (Be a knight in God's name), and then adds: "Rise, Sir A. B." In exceptional cases, persons have been made knights bachelor by patent. The lord-lieutenant of Ireland occasionally exercises a right of conferring knighthood. See KNIGHT.

BACHIAN, one of the Molucca islands just s. of the equator, 127° e. It has about 800 sq.m.; is of irregular form, and mountainous. Hot sulphur springs bespeak_vol canic action. The island is well wooded, and sago, cocoa nuts, and cloves are abundant, There is one large grove of nutmeg trees. It is the most eastern point on the globe inhabited by any of the quadrumana. The people are the Sirani, or Christian descend ants of the Portuguese, some Malays, a few Papuans, and a colony from the Celebes. The government is headed by a sultan under the protection of the Dutch. The chief town is called Amassing by the natives.

BACHMAN, JOHN, b. New York, 1790; naturalist and Lutheran minister, pastor in Charleston, S. C., in 1822. He was assistant to Audubon, and chief author of the work on North American quadrupeds. Among his own works are: A Defense of Luther, and Characteristics of Species and Genera as Applicable to the Doctrine of the Unity of the Human Race. He d. 1874.

BACILLUS, TUBERCLE. See page 879.

BACIOC CHI, MARIE-ANNE-ELISA BONAPARTE, the eldest sister of Napoleon Bonaparte, was b. at Ajaccio, Corsica, in 1777. When that island was occupied by the English, she, with her family, emigrated to Marseille. Here she married, at the age of 20, a countryman of her own, capt. Baciocchi. The elevation of Napoleon raised her also to rank and power; and in 1806, the principality of Massa and Carrara was intrusted to her administration, which was, on the whole, a beneficial one for the people. In 1809, she was made grand duchess of Tuscany, and appointed as administrator over that country in Napoleon's name. Here the arbitrary measures of her brother, which she had to carry out, and her own self-will and harshness, rendered her anything but popular. Her husband took no part in the government. When the allies entered Tuscany in 1814, she of course had to leave Florence. She died, at Bologna, of nervous fever, in 1820.

BACK, in maritime language, has many technical applications. To back an anchor, is to support the large anchor by a smaller one, in order to prevent it from loosening and coming home in bad ground. To back and fill, is a mode of tacking when the tide is with a vessel, but the wind against her. To back the sails, is so to arrange them as to make the ship move astern or backwards; it is done when the tide or current is with the ship, and light winds against her; and the maneuver is useful to avoid collisions in narrow channels, to bring the ship into a particular position during naval engage. ments, or to keep ships well asunder when crowded in convoy. To back the maintop. sail, and analogous operations to other sails, is so to arrange a sail that the speed of the ship's progress may be checked.

BACK, Sir GEORGE, a well-known traveler in the polar regions, was b. at Stockport in 1796. He entered early on a naval career, and accompanied Franklin and Richardson in their expedition to the n. coast of America. He volunteered to the government to go in search of capt. Ross, who was supposed to have been lost in his attempt to discover the north-west passage; and his offer having been accepted, he left London, Feb. 17, 1833, and on the 28th of June, started from Norwayhouse, a station of the Hudson Bay Company, on his journey to the north. After passing a terrible winter with his companions at Slave lake, he discovered, in 1834, Artillery lake, and the Great Fish river, or Back's river, which he followed to the Frozen ocean. Being hindered by the ice from preceding along the coast as far as cape Turn-again, he returned by the river; but although he had received news of the return of capt. Ross, he continued his explorations in the North sea, and did not return to England until 1835, when he was raised to the

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rank of post-captain for his services. In 1836 and 1837, he further explored the arctic shores in the interests of geography-the geographical society, in the latter year, bestowing its gold medal upon him. Two years afterwards, he was knighted, and had a lucrative treasury appointment bestowed upon him. He attained flag rank in 1857, and that of admiral in 1867. He d. in June, 1878.

BACKER, JACOB A., or BAKKER (not Jacob de Backer, of Antwerp), b. Harlingen, Netherlands, abt. 1609; d. Amsterdam, 1651; painter, and, at one time, pupil of Rembrandt. He was noted for his portraits and historical pieces, and for the remarkable facility and quickness with which he worked. He etched several plates from original designs.

BACKERGUN'GE, a t. of Bengal, situated on B. creek, an offset from the Ganges, in lat. 22° 3 ' n., and long. 90° 22′ e.-125 m. to the e. of Calcutta. Till supplanted by Burrisol, which is 12 m. to the n., it was the capital of the district of the same name.

BACKERGUN'GE, or BAKARGANJ, a district of Bengal. It extends in n. lat. from 22° 2′ to 28° 13', and in e. long. from 89° 49′ to 91°, containing 4935 sq.m., and (1871) 2,377,433 inhabitants, or about 480 inhabitants to a sq.m. Like the rest of the great delta of Bengal, B. is of alluvial formation and level surface, being watered at once by the lower streams of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, and also by the various branches or offsets which interlace together those mighty rivers. In consequence of the great number of water-courses, which at once cool the atmosphere and drain the soil, the country is fertile, and the temperature is said never to rise above 88° in the shade. From the same cause, the district is independent of regular roads for intercourse and communication. In the season of high-water, as may be expected, inundations are common. To guard against them, the houses are built on mounds; while the corresponding excav ations, like the natural "water-holes" of Australia, serve as tanks against the effects of the dry season. As is often the case in alluvial regions, land-slips are frequent, and also the opening of new channels for the streams. The productions are rice, sugar, cotton, pulse, mustard, cocoanuts, betel nuts, mangos, guavas, plantains, limes, pine-apples, ginger, and turmeric. Buffaloes are said to be generally used instead of oxen, of which the domestic breed is small and poor. Pop. '81, 1,900,889.

BACKGAMMON is the modern name of a game of considerable antiquity in England, where it was formerly known by the appellation of the tables." The words backgammon have been ascribed to the Welsh tongue, in which they are said to signify little battle; but Strutt, with greater plausibility, traces the term to the Saxon "bac and gamen -that is, back-game-so denominated because the performance consists in the two players bringing their men back from their antagonist's tables into their own; or because the pieces are sometimes taken up and obliged to go back-that is, re-enter at the table they came from." Whatever be the etymology of the term, the game has been long established in the country; and as a fireside amusement of a decorous nature, is a favorite among clergymen, squires, farmers, and retired professional persons.

B. is played with an apparatus consisting of a board or tables, men or pieces, dice, and dice-boxes. The introduction of dice into the game, and their constant use in determining moves, makes B. essentially a game of chance, and therefore brings two players of unequal talents nearer a level than other diversions in which skill is the sole or predominant element. The B. board consists of two parts or tables, generally united by a hinge in the middle, by which they can be shut up as a box. Each table possesses twelve points, six at each end. These points are colored white and black alternately; but this variation of color has no reference to the game, and is only done to make the points more easily counted. The game is played by two parties, and with 30 pieces or men; each party has 15 men, one set of 15 being black, and the other white. In beginning the game, the men are placed on certain points on the tables, directly opposite to each other. The game is played with two dice and two dice-boxes. The dice are common to both; but each party uses his own dice-box, and the throws are alternate. Each die is a perfect cube, marked on its sides with dots from 1 to 6. The 1 is called ace; the 2, deuce; the 3, tre or trois; the 4, quatre; the 5, cinque; and the 6, size. At every throw, the two dice are employed; consequently, a person may throw from 2 up to 12—that is, two aces up to two sizes. If a player throw doublets, or both dice of one number, double the number of dots is reckoned; thus, by a throw of two aces, the player does not count 2, but 4. These numbers thrown or accidentally turned up by the dice, bear a reference to the points on the tables.

Let the reader call one party White, and another Black. White counts round from the ace-point of Black, and Black counts round from the ace-point of White. We may add that the grand object of the game is for each party to get all his men played round into the table containing the aces, removing them from point to point agreeable to the throws of the dice. In throwing, the number upon each die turned up may be reckoned by itself, or collectively, with the number on the other die. Thus, if quatre be thrown by one die, and size by the other, a man can be advanced 4 points, and another 6 points; or one man can be advanced 10 points, always providing that a point is open to suit this movement to it. No point can be moved to if covered by two men belonging to the adversary. If covered by only one man, which is called a blot, then that man can be hit, and be removed from the point, and placed on the bar between the tables, his