snow: and the ox, on a more enlarged scale of labour, is employed in some countries in ploughing, or in the draught of heavy weights: but the camel was from time immemorial, up to a comparatively recent period, almost the sole intermedium of the principal part of the commerce of the whole world. Thus the spices and other rich merchandise of the East, being brought to the confines of Arabia, were conveyed on the backs of camels across the desert, and thence finding their way to the trading cities of Phenicia, while they yet flourished-and subsequently, after their destruction or decay, to Alexandria-they were distributed over the continent of Europe; enriching whole nations by the profits of the mere transfer: for thus Venice became not only the mistress of the Adriatic and Mediterranean, but in a measure the arbitress of the whole world "And such she was ;-her daughters had their dowers Monarchs partook, and deem'd their dignity increased."* And when, in consequence of the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope, Alexandria ceased to be the main emporium of India and Europe, Venice declined in its riches and power; and the Portuguese, the Dutch, and lastly the English, acquired the political influence which Venice had lost: so true is the observation of Sir William Temple, that whatever nation is in possession of the commerce of India must necessarily have a preponderating influence in the affairs of the whole world.t But, although the route by the Cape has in a great measure superseded that by Alexandria, the commercial intercourse carried on by means of the camel between opposite confines of the African and Asiatic deserts is still sufficiently extensive to make the importance of that animal very considerable: so that even now, as ages and ages since, the riches of an individual are estimated by the number of camels he may possess: and he still uses his camels either in war, or for the transport of merchandise, or for the purpose of selling them. *Childe Harold, Canto IV. Stanza 2. For an account of the traffic between India and Europe, see Niebuhr, Descript. de l'Arabie, p. 246, &c. It cannot be considered an irrelevant, and certainly not in itself an unin teresting digression, here to observe, that there was a period in the commercial history of England, within the last century even, when the horse served the purpose in this island, which the camel serves in Arabia and other parts of the world: and a distinct trade then existed, that of the packer; the occupation of which was to make up bales of goods in a form convenient for carriage on the back of the pack-horse; and the trace of that mode of conveyance is still to be recognised in the sign of many inns in those parts of England where that mode of conveyance was prevalent. The same mode of conveyance is still very extensively employed in the north-eastern parts of the Russian dominions. But it would be found, upon pursuing the history of the camel, that, while under the point of view which has been just considered, this animal contributes more largely to the advantages of mankind than any other species of the ruminating order, it scarcely is inferior to any one of those species with respect to other advantages on account of which they are principally valuable. Thus the Arab obtains from the camel not only milk, and cheese, and butter, but he ordinarily also eats its flesh, and fabricates its hair into clothing of various kinds. The very refuse indeed of the digested food of the animal is the principal fuel of the desert; and from the smoke of this fuel is obtained the well-known substance called sal ammoniac, which is very extensively employed in the arts; and of which indeed, formerly, the greater part met with in commerce was obtained from this source alone, as may be implied from its very name.* SECTION IV. Domestication of Animals. NATURE has implanted a disposition in almost all animals to be domesticated by man; and also a capability of becoming adapted to the various climates into which they accompany him; and this disposition and adaptation necessarily extend the utility of these animals. There is, moreover, a consequent effect of domestication which is obvious to the commonest observer; and which extends still further the benefits arising from the practice. In a state of nature, almost all the individuals of the same species of animals have, at any given period of their life, so close a resemblance to each other in form, size, and colour, that it is difficult to distinguish them at a little distance: but whenever any species has been long domesticated, or subjugated to the dominion of man, we usually find a proportional variety in those points. In proof of the foregoing assertion it will be sufficient to make a comparison between wild and tame rabbits; or between the domestic and wild cat; and to refer to the differences observable in all those animals which are constantly under the care of man, as the horse, the dog, and the ox. The alteration which is produced in such cases, and which depends partly on climate and food and general regimen, but still more on the intermixture of the breed, is in many instances of the highest utility to man. Suppose for a moment that, in the case of the horse, any one of the existing varieties, the dray-horse for instance, or the Shetland poney, were from henceforth to determine the permanent character of the species; and observe what would * Ammon, an ancient name of that part of the African desert situate to the west of Egypt, supplied formerly much of the sal ammoniac of commerce. be the consequence. What a waste of power, and what an inconvenient increase of trouble and expense, both with respect to stableroom and food, would there be in using the dray-horse, where the Shetland pony would be sufficient; and, on the other hand, how ill would the Shetland pony supply the place of the dray-horse, where enormous weights were to be set in motion! Again, in the case of the dog, were all other varieties of this most useful animal to be annihilated, and only one form to prevail, its value would be proportionally lessened. If no variety of the dog existed but the small spaniel or the terrier, the miserable inhabitant of the north could no longer travel over his native tracts of frozen snow: nor could the victim of Alpine frost in Switzerland be hereafter rescued from a premature death, as he often now is, by the sagacity and strength of the mastiffs of that region. And, in another element, how many a life, which must have been otherwise lost, has been saved from a watery grave by the joint sagacity and powerful strength of the Newfoundland dog! What would the shepherd do without the assistance which he now derives from his faithful companion? Instead of that compact phalanx which we have often seen advancing over the distant downs, under the direction of the shepherd's dog; and from time to time, in obedience to its intelligent commander, still altering its direction in advancing, as steadily as a ship in sail obeys the helm; we should see a confused and scattered multitude, which all the shepherd's skill and activity could hardly restore to order. Nor let me be accused of inhumanity if I here instance the assistance which is given to man by those varieties of the dog which are principally used in the chace. Those feelings, which would spare the inferior animals unnecessary pain, are ever to be respected in others and cherished in ourselves; as those feelings which delight in cruelty are to be abhorred: but undoubtedly the desire of inflicting pain is not the incentive to the pleasures of the chace; and therefore, with reference to himself, the hunter is free from the charge of cruelty. With respect to the animal which is the object of the chace, the charge of cruelty is reasonably obviated by this highly probable consideration, that man can hardly inflict on the weaker animals a more cruel death than that, to which they are obnoxious by the very law of nature: for, ultimately, they will almost necessarily be hunted and destroyed by beasts of prey; or, if you suppose them to die either of disease or of old age, what misery must they not undergo in enduring this latter period of their life! In fact, unless in the case of acute disease, the occurrence of which in wild animals there is reason to think is extremely rare, they must, through mere helplessness, perish by hunger. An ethical discussion is to be avoided on the present occasion; and I shall only therefore observe, that, with respect to the infliction of pain on the inferior animals, in the particular case now under consideration, the grand question is the consequent effect on our own moral feelings. If we are conscious that we are inflicting pain, we shall do right to abstain from what otherwise would be an innocent amusement; for such abstinence will be a legitimate extension of the scriptural precept, "A righteous man regardeth the life of his beast:" and if, by neglecting the suggestions of our original feelings, we have, blunted the edge of the moral sense, doubtless we are culpable in a high degree. And this probably was the case in the gladiatorial exhibitions of antiquity; and is equally the case in the disgusting exhibitions of the bull-fight in Spain, and the more vulgar and not less disgusting spectacle of pugilistic engagements, or baiting of the bull, in our own country. But, omitting such palpably indefensible sports, it doubtless may be affirmed as a general truth that the amusements of hunting or of fishing are not accompanied by any consciousness of a wanton infliction of pain. And, although the occasionally concomitant habits of such sports may eventually blunt the benevolent feelings of our nature, we have not the least evidence that there is a necessary tendency in those amusements to produce that lamentable effect. There then remains, in support of the propriety of such amusements, the argument from the healthiness of the stimulus which they communicate to the mind as well as to the body; thus invigorating both: while they act as a present recreation, which in some shape or other is required by all. But if the pursuit of smaller and weaker animals should appear objectionable to any one, there still remain, in other countries at least if not in this, the wolf, the wild boar, and the tiger: and in subduing these, to which no one will probably object, the dog lends most effectual assistance to man. He is indeed of all animals the most undaunted and courageous. Mr. Burchell, who during his long residence in southern Africa had frequent opportunities of witnessing the character of this faithful guardian of man, has asserted to the author of this treatise, that he has, again and again, seen the fiercest and strongest animals shrink from the defiance of the dog; but he never saw the dog shrink from the defiance of any other animal.† The same observation is applicable to philosophical experiments on living animals; respecting experiments of which nature Shakspeare justly observes, "Your highness Shall from this practice but make hard your heart." † Linnæus, in enumerating the characters of the lion, somewhat similar observation with respect to the dog. equis et aliis majoribus animalibus;-canibus coercetur." tom. i. p. 76.) 12* makes, by implication, a "Leo esuriens prædatur (Linn. System. Gmelin. SECTION V. Animals as a Source of Food for Man. : ALTHOUGH the inhabitants of very warm climates live principally and often entirely on vegetables; in the colder climates animal food usually makes a part of the daily sustenance of all who are not oppressed by poverty and nature has not only provided amply for this want, but has afforded the easiest means of supplying it. The disposition of those animals, which afford the great bulk of the supply that is required, as the sheep, the ox, and the swine, is such, that they are not only disposed to live gregariously, but are readily brought under obedience, so as to be inoffensive either to the person or property of man: and their docility in this respect is particularly worthy of our attention, because, from the observations of M. Frederic Cuvier, (Mém. du Mus. tom. xiii. p. 419, 420,) it appears that herbivorous animals are not, as is generally supposed, naturally more mild and tractable than the carnivorous; in fact they are by nature less mild and tractable. The flesh of all those species, which have been above-mentioned, is, generally speaking, acceptable to the human palate; and is in a great measure necessary to the support of those who are habitually exposed to great exertions and fatigue: but there are many occasions on which such food could not with any convenience be obtained, even by those to whom the expense is not a matter of any consideration. In situations for instance which are far removed from any town, there are very few, with the exception of the possessors of extensive landed property, who can be conveniently supplied with animal food from their own flocks and herds: and in the case of the crews of ships, which are accustomed to make long voyages, it would be utterly impossible to find room in any vessel for such a number of live animals, and still less for the food which those animals would require, as would be competent to supply the daily consumption of all on board. But in all these instances the difficulty is obviated by the preservative quality of common salt: for we know that, by the aid of salted provisions, guarded by the regular use of vegetable acids, a ship's crew may be maintained in good health for an indefinite length of time. And then, with reference to the general question, there are almost all the herbivorous species of birds, together with the auxiliary supply of their eggs; and those numerous species both of river and of sea fish, which contribute very largely to the support of the human race, not solely by affording food, but by affording a lucrative employment to the fisherman. I omit the consideration of the turtle, the lobster, the prawn, the oyster, and a few other species; because the aggregate consumption of such kind of food is com |