vacuum that would otherwise be produced; if in opening be made into the pleural cavity, the expansion of the lung of that side is diminished or prevented in proportion to the size of the aperture. The enlargement of the pleural cavity during inspiration is effected chiefly by the diaphragm, which from a high arch becomes plane, pressing on the organs below and protruding the abdominal walls, and this is alone nearly sufficient for tranquil breathing; when greater dilatation is required, the ribs are elevated and the sternum pushed forward; in man this change is greatest at the lower part of the chest, hence his respiration is called in ferior costal, and in woman at the upper part, her respiration being accordingly styled superior costal. Other inspiratory muscles are the external intercostals and levatores costarum; the expiratory muscles are the central portion of the internal intercostals and the abdominal layers; in labored inspiration all the muscles which raise the shoulder blade and ribs and hold the spine erect are called into play, and in expiration the long muscles of the back and the depressors of the ribs; in urgent dyspnoea almost every muscle may become a fixed point for the accessory distention of the chest. The force of the expiratory muscles is about greater than that of the inspiratory. To facilitate the respiratory function the pulmonary circulation is simple, the vessels not arranged in networks, the capillaries uniformly distributed over the air cells and intercellular passages, and the veins with very imperfect or no valves; the course of the blood is not affected by changes of atmospheric or muscular pressure; it remains venous till it reaches the capillaries, where it becomes arterial by parting with carbonic acid and receiving oxygen. The differences between arterial and venous blood, as to the proportions of oxygen and carbonic acid, effected by the respiratory process, indicate that an exchange of oxygen for carbonic acid takes place in the systemic circulation, and of carbonic acid for oxygen in the general circulation. Fibrine is increased during aeration, and the dark color of venous blood is changed to bright arterial, whether the cause be a chemical or physical change (contraction) in the red corpuscles. The chief nervous centre of the respiratory movements is the upper part of the medulla oblongata; the principal excitor is the pneumogastric or par vagum nerve, which receives and conveys impressions due to the presence of venous blood in the capillaries and of carbonic acid in the air cells; they are probably partly dependent on a sensation excited in the brain by the circulation of impure blood, on the reflex influence of the nerves of the general system distributed to the surface, especially the 5th nerve in the face, and doubtless also on the branches of the sympathetic system in the lungs and on the small vessels. The motor nerves concerned in this function are the phrenic, arising from the upper part of the spinal cord, the intercostals lower down, and the fa

cial and spinal accessory from the medulla oblongata, perhaps also connected with other segments of the spinal cord. That the respiratory movements are essentially involuntary, is known from the impossibility of holding the breath in the air, even when with suicidal intent, for more than a few minutes, the besoin de respirer or the demand of the system for oxygen being more powerful than the control of the will; that they are also independent of consciousness, we see in sleep, coma, and in anencephalous and decapitated animals. When respiration is suspended, carbonic acid is retained in the blood, and the condition of asphyxia ensues, characterized by cessation of muscular motion and circulation, and the accumulation of blood in the venous system; warm-blooded animals perish sooner from this cause than reptiles, fishes, and invertebrates; hibernating animals support life for months with a very low respiration, and aquatic mammals, birds, and reptiles have special reservoirs in the circulating system which enable them to remain under water without breathing for a considerable time. If respiration be suspended in an active warm-blooded animal, muscular motions will cease in from 3 to 5 minutes and the circulation within 10; by habit pearl divers can remain under water 3 or 4 minutes; in drowned persons vital activity has been restored after a submersion of 15 or 20 minutes and perhaps longer, especially when from fright a state of syncope has come on at the moment of immersion and reduced the circulation to so low an ebb that deprivation of air would not be speedily fatal. In dislocation of the spine between the origins of the intercostal and phrenic nerves, the former being paralyzed, respiration is confined to the diaphragm; this being insufficient, serum is effused and a slow suffocation supervenes; other obstacles to sufficient respiration are solidification of the lung from any cause, and adhesions of the pleuræ. Artificial respiration will frequently restore the circulation in asphyxia from any cause, or excite it in still-born infants. Sighing, sobbing, yawning, laughing, sneezing, crying, and coughing are modifications of the respiratory movements. According to Dr. Hutchinson, the vital capacity of the human lungs, or the volume of air which can be displaced by a single forced expiration, varies from 174 cubic inches in a man 5 feet high to 262 in one of 6 feet, there being a difference of 8 cubic inches for every inch of stature between 5 and 6 feet; this is but slightly modified by weight, age, and muscular vigor. The amount actually exchanged at each ordinary respiration is set down by Carpenter as about 20 cubic inches, which is mingled with the air already in the lungs in virtue of the law of the diffusion of gases, the lungs actively assisting, according to Prof. Draper, by the muscular contractions of the smaller bronchial tubes. The amount of air passing through the lungs in 24 hours of course varies with the extent and frequency of the re

spiratory movements; 800 cubic feet, from experience, seems to be the minimum that can safely be claimed for a single individual under ordinary systems of ventilation. The oxygen of the air is removed and its place supplied with carbonic acid at an average rate of 4.35 per cent., and this should be supplied by proper ventilation, as a proportion of 5 or 6 per cent. of carbonic acid in the respired air is dangerous to life. The number of the respiratory movements in a healthy adult man, whose pulse is from 65 to 70, varies from 14 to 18 per minute. The reaction between the air and the blood is partly physical, according to the laws of the diffusion of gases through the membranous walls of the air cells. The amount of oxygen absorbed depends much on the nature of the food, being far greater in carnivorous than herbivorous animals; the amount of carbonic acid exhaled in a healthy man in 24 hours has been estimated at 3,840 grains or 8 oz. troy; this is increased by cold, moisture, muscular exertion, plentiful food, and diseases of skin, and is lessened by alcohol, in sleep, and in typhoid diseases; it is greatest in robust adult males, and is stationary in females during menstrual life. Rather more nitrogen is exhaled than is taken into the lungs; watery vapor is also given off during respiration, about 16 to 20 oz. in 24 hours. Respiration by the skin is an important accessory in man. (See PERSPIRATION, and SKIN.) Volatile matters may be absorbed by the lungs during respiration, both for useful and dangerous purposes; the vapor of turpentine thus introduced acts on the urinary secretion; arseniuretted hydrogen from green wall papers may in this way produce dangerous poisoning; miasmata and other morbific agents are most readily introduced through the lungs; active medicines, like mercury, iodine, tobacco, stramonium, and other substances soothing to pulmonary irritation, are most naturally received into the system in the same manner, as also are the remarkable anæsthetic agents sulphuric ether and chloroform.-The importance of the respiration of pure air, both for individuals and coinmunities, need only be alluded to here. The breathing of air charged with the exhalations of the lungs and skin is the most powerful of all the predisposing causes of disease, especially of those wide-spread and fatal epidemics depending on the presence of fermentible and putrescible matters in the blood, as is proved by the history of the cholera. The effluvia of vaults, drains, sewers, extensive piggeries, slaughter houses, manufactories of manure, &c., from bones, and other putrescent emanations, are prolific sources of diseases, almost always with a typhoid tendency. The history of disease proves that purity in the air habitually respired is essential to the maintenance of the full power of resisting morbific influence in man and the domestic animals.

RETORT, a vessel used chiefly for effecting distillations in the laboratory, and in various

forms in manufacturing operations, where the distillation is of the dry or destructive character; but in the wet distillations in the large way the vessels not of glass corresponding to retorts are called stills. The chemist's retort is commonly of glass, and of all capacities up to several gallons. It consists of a rounded body for containing the liquid, the upper portion of which is bent over and drawn out into a long tapering neck about at right angles with the body. The substance to be distilled is introduced through the neck, or in "tubulated" retorts an opening is made at the top and provided with a glass stopple, so that while the distillation is in progress the contents can be replenished through this opening. The vapors as they rise pass through the neck, and thence into the receiver, another vessel connected with the retort. The glass is made thin and of refractory character, so as to bear without risk of fracture, when containing a liquid, either the direct flame of a lamp over which the vessel is placed, or the heat of the sand bath. Retorts are also made of earthenware and of the metals. A convenient iron retort is made by attaching an iron tube for a neck to one of the bottles in which mercury is sold. In the manufacture of illuminating gas, the retorts are of iron or of clay, 6 feet or more in length. (See GAS.) In charring wood for charcoal and pyroligneous acid, cylindrical iron retorts of large size are used, and also brick ovens or kilns, the capacity of which is sometimes equal to 60 cords of wood. Such kilns are properly retorts if used with eduction pipes for conveying the volatile products to a receiver to be condensed.

RETZ, GILLES DE LAVAL, baron, and marshal of France, born about 1396, put to death in 1440. Under Charles VII. he distinguished himself in the war against the English, fought with the maid of Orleans, and finally obtained a marshal's baton. In consequence of pecuniary troubles, he retired to his castle in the neighborhood of Nantes. Rumors of shameful deeds practised by him becoming very rife, the bishop of Nantes summoned him to be tried before a mixed commission. It was proved that during 14 years the baron had enticed into his castle several hundred children of both sexes, had practised magic, and had paid a formal worship to the infernal powers, in which his victims were obliged to take part as priests and priestesses. He was handed over to the civil power, and by a decree of Oct. 25, 1440, he was declared guilty of apostasy, of heresy, of the invocation of demons, of unnatural practices, and of sacrilege, and was condemned to the stake, but out of consideration for his dignity was strangled.

RETZ, JEAN FRANÇOIS PAUL DE GONDI, cardinal de, a French politician and historical writer, born in Montmirail in 1614, died in Paris, Aug. 24, 1679. A younger son of Philippe Emmanuel de Gondi, the general of the galleys under the reign of Louis XIII., he was from his infancy destined for the church, with

a view to the archbishopric of Paris, then held by his uncle, and previously by his grand-uncle. He endeavored to avoid this destination of himself, and entered a career of intrigue and licentiousness; love affairs and duels, high liv. ing and scandalous frolics, and active participation in every conspiracy plotted against Richelieu, were all employed as means for establishing a reputation that would unfit him for the church; but his family proved immovable in their decision. The profligate abbé, convinced that all his exertions would be of no avail, turned his attention to theological studies, and, without losing in the least his taste for political intrigue, acquired proficiency as a divine and a preacher. He took a high rank among the most distinguished members of the church, and in 1643, when not yet 30 years old, became coadjutor to his uncle the archbishop, Henri de Gondi. His winning manners, eloquence, zeal for the welfare of his flock, abundant alms, and seeming Christian virtues secured for him unparalleled popularity among the Parisians. When the troubles of the Fronde broke out, he offered his services to the regent, Anne of Austria; but being coldly received, he used his popularity to cause the people of the metropolis to rise in arms against Mazarin, and became in effect the leader of the revolt. During the 5 years of that strange civil war, he evinced extraordinary talents; but he played with his allies as well as his opponents, won a cardinal's hat in 1651 through his temporary alliance with the court, and finally lost credit with all parties. Previous to the termination of the troubles, he was arrested by order of the queen, the Parisians not making the slightest attempt to rescue him. He was first taken to Vincennes, then to the castle of Nantes, whence he escaped. He took refuge in Spain, then in Italy, where his rank as a cardinal and his dignity of archbishop of Paris, in which he had in 1654 succeeded his uncle, secured him some respect. His return to France was finally permitted in 1661, but on condition of resigning his archbishopric, which he exchanged for the abbacy of St. Denis, the richest preferment in France. He now gave up politics entirely, lived for the most part on an estate of his in Lorraine, paid up his old debts, which amounted to more than 3,000,000 livres, and to his last day was admired for his liberality and kindness. Mme. de Sévigné, who was among the most intimate of his friends, used to call him in her letters "our good cardinal." He had, when scarcely 17 years old, written a history of the conspiracy of Fieschi, the perusal of which elicited from Cardinal Richelieu the characteristic remark: "This will be a dangerous mind." The leisure hours of his retired life were devoted to writing his personal memoirs, which were printed for the first time in 1717 (3 vols. 12mo., Naney), and have been often reprinted, with the addition of those of Guy-Joly and the duchess de Nemours, by which they are completed.

They are included in Petitot's and Michaud and Poujoulat's Collections de mémoires sur l'histoire de France. The most recent and accurate edition is that of Aimé-Champollion (4 vols. 12mo., 1859), with annotations and index.

RETZSCH, FRIEDRICH AUGUST MORITZ, a German painter and designer, born in Dresden, Dec. 9, 1779, died near that city, June 11, 1857. He studied in the Dresden academy, and for several years painted portraits and historical and imaginative subjects. In 1824 he was appointed professor of painting in the academy. As a painter he is little known, and his reputation rests upon his outline etchings and designs illustrating "Faust" and the romantic ballads of Goethe, Schiller, Bürger, and other German poets, and several of the plays of Shakespeare. In addition to these works may be mentioned his numerous Phantasien and "Sketches," produced with almost incredible facility, and his "Goblet" and "Chess Players," &c.

REUCHLIN, JOHANN, called also KAPNIO (Gr. Kanvov, diminutive of kavos, smoke, a translation of Reuchlin), a German scholar, born in Pforzheim, Dec. 28, 1455, died in Stuttgart, June 30, 1522. He studied at the school of Schlettstadt, and on account of the sweetness of his voice was admitted into the chapel of the margrave of Baden, where he attracted the attention of that prince, who selected him to accompany his son Frederic in 1473 to the university of Paris. There he found opportunity to study Hebrew and Greek, gaining the means to support himself and to purchase books by copying the poems of Homer and the orations of Isocrates. At the age of 20 he taught at Basel philosophy and Greek and Latin; studied law in Orleans, and returning to Germany was in 1481 made teacher of jurisprudence and belles-lettres in the university of Tübingen. In 1483 he accompanied his patron, Eberhard of Würtemberg, to Italy, where he came in contact with some of the most learned men of that country, who were astonished at the elegance of his scholarship. He then settled at Stuttgart, received from the emperor Frederic III. the titles of count palatine and imperial councillor, and was employed for several years in various legal and diplomatic functions. After the death of Eberhard he went to the court of the elector Philip at Heidelberg, and there remained many years, during which he made valuable additions to the Heidelberg library; and when the elector in consequence of calumnious reports fell under the ban of the papal court, Reuchlin went to Rome and by his address obtained the absolution of his patron. For 11 years he filled the post of president of the Swabian confederate tribunal, but nevertheless found time to devote himself to his literary occupations, especially to the study of the eastern tongues, and was constantly collecting Greek and Hebrew manuscripts. In 1509 Reuchlin became involved in that famous controversy with the monks which immediately preceded

the reformation. A converted Jew named Pfefferkorn persuaded the inquisition of Cologne to solicit from the emperor Maximilian an order that all Hebrew books with the exception of the Bible should be burned, on the ground that they were full of blasphemies against Jesus Christ. The emperor asked the opinion of Reuchlin, who had lately been turning his attention to cabalistic studies, and he remonstrated strenuously against the wholesale destruction of so many curious and valuable works, although he left those directed against Christianity to their fate. The order was therefore superseded. The inquisitors raised a furious cry against Reuchlin, picking out passages from his works and perverting their meaning, and charging him with being a heretic and being secretly inclined to Judaism. Reuchlin, who was at first alarmed, soon took up arms, and in 1513 published a "Defence against his Cologne Slanderers ;" and in revenge the inquisitor Hoogstraaten formed a tribunal at Mentz, by the order of which the writings of the German scholar were committed to the flames. The friends of classical literature were indignant at this proceeding, and the struggle soon became general. An appeal was made to Pope Leo X., who referred the whole matter to the bishop of Spire, and that prelate declared Reuchlin innocent, and ordered the monks to pay the expenses of the investigation. Still the Dominicans persisted, and the matter was again brought before Leo, who issued a mandate to suspend the proceedings against Reuchlin. The opening of the reformation prevented the matter from being ever brought up again; but the victory resulted really if not nominally in favor of the advocates of classical literature, the study of Greek and Hebrew from that time becoming general among the Germans. (See EPISTOLE OBSCURORUM VIRORUM.) In the stormy times which followed, Reuchlin had his full share of trouble. When in 1517 he received the theses propounded by Luther, he exclaimed: "Thanks be to God, at last they have found a man who will give them so much to do, that they will be compelled to let my old age end in peace." In the war between Franz von Sickingen and Ulric, duke of Würtemberg, Reuchlin was obliged to leave Stuttgart, and in 1520 was made professor in the university of Ingolstadt by Duke William of Bavaria. He received an invitation to go to Wittenberg, and recommended in his place his cousin Melanchthon. When in 1522 the plague broke out in Ingolstadt, he retired to Tübingen with the intention of devoting himself wholly to his studies, but soon sickened and died. The labors of Reuchlin in behalf of the revival of classical literature in Europe were arduous and extremely important. Among his philological works may be mentioned an edition of Xenophon's "Apology of Socrates, Agesilaus, and Hiero" (Hagenau, 1520); several Latin translations of Greek authors; Micropadia, sive Grammatica Græca (Orleans, 1478); Breviloquus,

sive Dictionarium singulas Voces Latinas bretiter Explicans (Basel, 1478); Rudimenta Hebraica (Pforzheim, 1506); and De Accentibus et Orthographia Hebræorum Libri III. His edition of the 7 penitential psalms (Tübingen, 1512) is thought to have been the first Hebrew work printed in Germany. His library was for the age in which he lived remarkably large, and he himself was regarded with extraordinary affection by the literary men of his time. Although suspected of a leaning toward Protestantism, he never renounced his connection with the Roman Catholic church.

REUS, a town of Catalonia, Spain, in the province of Tarragona, 255 m. N. E. from Madrid; pop. 28,084. It stands in a fertile plain at the foot of a chain of hills about 4 m. from the Mediterranean, and had at one time strong fortifications. Linen, silk, and cotton are manufactured. Reus is connected by a canal with Salon, and by railroad with Tarragona.

REUSS, a territory of central Germany, between lat. 50° and 51° N., and long. 11° and 13° E., enclosed by Meiningen, Prussian Saxony, Weimar, Altenburg, the kingdom of Saxony, and Bavaria; area, 463 sq. m.; pop. 121,203. It consists of two unequal portions, separated by the southern part of Weimar. It is a part of what was formerly known as Voigtland, mostly hilly, and traversed by the upper courses of the White Elster and Saale. The climate is healthy and agreeable. Cattle and sheep rearing, and the weaving of linen, woollen, and cotton fabrics, are the chief occupations of the inhabitants, almost all of whom are Lutherans. The territory forms now two sovereign principalities of the Germanic confederation, ReussGreitz (or Greiz) and Reuss-Schleitz (or Schleiz). The former division (area, 144 sq. m.) is the patrimony of the elder branch of the reigning family; its capital is Greitz, on the Elster. The latter (arca, 319 sq. m.), which is ruled by the younger line, comprises the principalities of Schleitz, Lobenstein-Ebersdorf, and Gera, the capital being Schleitz. Both together furni-h a battalion of infantry as a contingent to the federal army. The respective reigning princes are Henry XXII. and Henry LXVII., descendants of Henry of Gleisberg, voigt of Weida and marshal of the court to the emperor Frederic I.

REUSS, a river of Switzerland. See UI. REUTERDAHL, HENRIK, a Swedish theologian and church historian, born in Malmö, Sept. 10, 1795. He was educated in the university of Lund, and in 1817 began to read lectures at the seminary there. In 1824 he became extraordinary adjunct of the theological faculty, in 1827 prefect of the seminary and pastor, in 1830 doctor of theology, in 1838 librarian of the city, and in 1844 professor of theology in the university. In 1852 he was appointed state councillor, and minister of instruction and publie worship. Among his works are an "Introduction to Theology" (Lund, 1837), “Collection of Swedish Proverbs" (1840), and "History of the Swedish Church," not yet completed.