moderns, it has not been my intention to prove that the classification of the one is built upon equally clear and extensive demonstrations as that of the other; but to show, as in harmony with the general object of this treatise, that, even in the very dawn of science, there is frequently sufficient light to guide the mind to at least an approximation to the truth-to a much nearer approximation, indeed, than could have been antecedently expected by those who are not accustomed to reflect philosophically on the uniformity of the laws of nature. Thus, as has been already mentioned, the advancement of science has shown the existence of such a general coincidence and harmony of relation between the several component parts of an individual animal, that even a partial acquaintance with the details of its structure will frequently enable the inquirer to ascertain its true place in the scale of organization. And hence, although Aristotle knew nothing of the circulation of the blood, or of the general physiology of the nervous system, and even comparatively little of the osteology of animals, yet subsequent discoveries have scarcely disturbed the order of his arrangement. He placed the whale, for instance, in the same natural division with common quadrupeds, because he saw that like them it is viviparous, and suckles its young, and respires by lungs and not by gills; and with viviparous quadrupeds it is still classed: the circulation of its blood, as well as the arrangement of its nervous system, being essentially the same as in that class of animals. And, notwithstanding the difference of its form, its osteology, which holds an analogy throughout with that of quadrupeds, is the same actually in a part where it would be least expected: for, with the remarkable exception of the sloth, all viviparous quadrupeds have exactly seven cervical vertebræ, and so has the whale; whereas fish, to the general form of which the whale closely approximates, having no neck, have no cervical vertebræ; and the deficiency of the neck in fish was recognised by Aristotle.*

GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY.

Aristotle.

Cuvier, Tom. I.

In some animals there is a Every organized body has its mutual resemblance in all their peculiar form; not only generally parts; as the eye of any one man and exteriorly, but even in the resembles the eye of every other detail of the structure of each of man: and it is the same with re- its parts; and all the individuals spect to the constituent parts of which agree in the detail of their horses, or of any other animals, structure are of the same species. which are said to be of the same

species: for in individuals of the same species each part resembles

* Αὐχένα δ ̓ οὐδεὶς ἔχει ἰχθύς. Ρ. 40.

In addition to the mouth and The lowest animals have no stomach, most animals have other outlet for the refuse of their other common parts by which food, than that by which they adthey exclude the refuse of their mit the food itself."

Aristotle.

food: but in some animals these

parts are wanting.

Μετὰ δὲ ταῦτα άλλα κοινά μόρια ἔχει τὰ πλεῖστα τῶν ζῴων πρὸς τούτοις, ᾗ ἀφίησι τὸ περίτε τωμα τῆς τροφῆς οὐ γὰρ πᾶσιν ὑπάρχει τοῦτο. Ρ. 6.

Cuvier, Tom. I.

Il n'y a que les derniers des animaux ou les excrémens res. sortent par la bouche, et dont l'intestin ait la forme d'un sac sans issue. P. 41.

There are fibres of the peculiar The blood contains a principle kind in the blood; by the remo- called fibrine, which, within a val of which that fluid is pre- short time after the blood has vented from coagulating: but if been withdrawn from the body, they are not removed, it does co- manifests itself in the form of agulate. And through defect of membranes or filaments. these fibres the blood of the deer

and of some other animals does not coagulate.

Ἔστι δὲ καὶ ἄλλο γένος ἐνῶν, ὃ (Le fluide nourricier, ou le γίνεται μὲν ἐν αἵματι—ὧν ἐξαι- sang)—contient la fibrine et la ρουμένων ἐκ τοῦ αἵματος οὐ πήγε gelatine presque toutes disposées νυται τὸ αἷμα, ἐὰν δὲ μὴ ἐξαιρε- formes de membranes ou de filaà se contracter et à prendre les θῶσι, πήγνυται. Ρ. 64. Ἐν μὲν οὖν τῷ τῶν πλείστων αἵματι ζῴων moins suffit-il d'un peu de repos mens qui leur sont propres, du ἔνεισιν, ἐν δὲ τῷ τῆς ἐλάφου καὶ pour qu'elles s'y manifestent. P. προκὸς καὶ βουβαλίδος καὶ ἄλλων 27.

τινῶν οὐκ ἔνεισιν ἶνες· διὸ καὶ οὐ πήγνυται αὐτῶν τὸ αἷμα ὁμοίως τοῖς ἄλλοις, ἀλλὰ τὸ μὲν τῶν ἐλὰΦων παραπλησίως τῷ τῶν δασυ πόδον.* Ρ. 65.

The particular senses are five The most general external in number, sight, hearing, smell, sense is that of touch; its seat taste, and touch. Of these the is the surface of the whole body. sense of touch is alone common Many animals are without the

* It is deserving of notice, that the animals whose blood is said not to coagulate are such as are usually killed in hunting; and it is understood by physiologists in general, that excessive exercise and violent mental emotions, both which occur in hunted animals, prevent the blood from coagulating. Two of the species here mentioned by Aris

totle (πρὸξ and δασύπους οι λαγωός) are mentioned by Homer as commonly

hunted:

—ἀγίνεσκον νέοι άνδρες

Αἴγας ἐπ' ἀγροτέρας, ἠδὲ πρόκας ἠδὲ λαγωούς

Opyss. P. 259.

Aristotle. to all animals; and is so gene- sense of hearing, and of smell, Cuvier, Tom. I. rally diffused over the whole and of sight. Some have none body, that it is not said to reside of the senses except that of touch, in any specific part. All animals which is never wanting. do not possess all the senses; some possess only a part of them. But no animal is without the fifth sense, that of touch.

Εἰσὶ δ ̓ αἱ (αἰσθήσεις) πλεῖσται, Le sens extérieur le plus géκαὶ παρ ὡς οὐδεμία φαίνεται ίδιος néral est le toucher; son siège ἑτέρα, πέντε τὸν ἀριθμὸν, ὄψις, est à la peau, membrane enveἀκοὴ, ἔσφρησις, γεῦσις, αφή. Ρ. oppant le corps entier. P. 36. P. 100. Πᾶσι δὲ τοῖς ζῴοις αἴσθησις d'oreilles et de narines; plusieurs Beaucoup d'animaux manquent μία ὑπάρχει κοινὴ μόνη ἡ ἀφὴ, d'yeux; il y en a qui sont réduits ὥστε καὶ ἐν ᾧ αὕτη μορίῳ γίνεσθαι au toucher, lequel ne manque jaπέφυκεν, ἀνώνυμόν ἐστιν. Ρ. 7. mais. P. 37. Οὐ γὰρ ὁμοίως πᾶσιν ὑπάρχουσιν (αἰσθήσεις,) ἀλλὰ τοῖς μὲν πᾶσαι τοῖς δ ̓ ἐλάττους. Ρ. 100. Τὴν δὲ πέμπτην αἴσθησιν τὴν ἁφὴν καλουμένην—πάντ ̓ ἔχει ζωα. Ρ. 101.

All animals which draw in and

When the element subservient

breathe out the air have lungs. to the process of respiration is Those animals which employ the air, the organ of respiration water, analogously to air, in re- is the lungs: when water, the piration, have gills. gills.

Ὅλος δὲ πάντα ὅσα τὸν ἀέρα dexóμeva ávaπVET xai ixTVET, πάντ ̓ ἔχει πνεύμονα. Ρ. 43. Τὰ μὲν οὖν ἀνάλογον τῇ ἀναπνοῆ χρώμενα τῷ ὑγρῷ βράγχια ἔχει·

P. 215.

Quand cet élément est de l'air, la surface est creuse, et se nomme poumon; quand c'est de l'eau, branchie. P. 43. elle est saillante, et s'appelle

Animals in general appear to Even the most perfect animals have a certain degree of intel- are infinitely inferior to man in lectual power, and some are ca- the intellectual faculties; alpable of instruction. Some ani- though it is certain that their inmals are cautious; some are telligence performs similar opecunning. Man alone is capable rations to those of the human of meditation and reflection. mind: and they are capable of inMany animals possess memory: struction. Man has the faculty no animal but man is capable of of associating his general ideas recollection.

with particular images of a more or less arbitrary character, but

Aristotle.

Cuvier, Tom. I.

easily imprinted in his memory, which serve to recall to him the general ideas which they repre

sent.

Φαίνονται γὰρ (τὰ ζῷα) ἔχοντά Les animaux les plus parfaits τινα δύναμιν—περί τε φρόνησιν sont infiniment au-dessous de καὶ εὐήθειαν—ἔνια δὲ κοινωνεῖ τινὸς l'homme pour les facultés intellectuelles, et il est cependant ἅμα καὶ μαθήσεως καὶ διδασκαcertain que leur intelligence exéλίας. Ρ. 251. Τὰ μεν φρόνιμα cute des opérations du même τὰ δ ̓ ἐπίβουλα βουλευτικὸν δὲ genreils acquièrent par l'expéμόνον ἄνθρωπος ἐστι τῶν ζῴων. καὶ rience une certaine connaissance μνήμης μὲν καὶ διδαχῆς πολλὰ des choses. P. 51, 52. L'homme κοινωνεῖ, ἀναμιμνήσκεσθαι δὲ οὐδὲν ἄλλο δύναται πλὴν ἄνθρωπος.

P. 6.

a la faculté d'associer ses idées Heres et plus ou moins arbitraires, générales à des images particuaisées à graver dans la mémoire, et qui lui servent à rappeler les idées générales qu'elles représentent. P. 50.

In the greater number of ani- Animals are susceptible of mals there are traces of the moral emulation, and jealousy, &c. In affections of man; for some are short, we may observe in the mild and some are fierce. And higher animals a certain degree of the same thing may be very rea- the reasoning faculty, which apdily discerned in children, for in pears nearly the same with that them we may perceive the germs of infants before they have acof their future habits; and indeed quired the power of speech. the dispositions of human beings at that early period of life do not differ from those of the inferior animals.

περὶ

ἐπὶ τῶν

1

Ενεστι γὰρ ἐν τοῖς πλείστοις Ils sont susceptibles d'émuκαὶ τῶν ἄλλον ζῴων ἔχην τῶν lation et de jalousie-en un mot, τὴν ψυχὴν τρόπων, άπερ on aperçoit dans les animaux supérieurs un certain degré de raiἀνθρώπων ἔχει φανερωτέρας τὰς Sonnement avec tous ses effets διαφοράς. Ρ. 212. Τὰ μὲν γάς bons et mauvais, et qui parait ἐστι πρᾶατὰ δὲ θυμώδη. Ρ. 6. être à peu près le même que celui Φανερώτατον δ ̓ ἐστὶ τὸ τοιοῦτον des enfans lorsqu'ils n'ont pas ἐπὶ τὴν τῶν παίδων ἡλικίαν βλέ- encore appris à parler. P. 52. ψασιν· ἐν τούτοις γὰρ τῶν μὲν ὕστερον ἕξεων ἐσομένων ἔστιν ἰδεῖν οἷον ἴχνη καὶ σπέρματα, διαφέρει δ ̓ οὐθὲν ὡς εἰπεῖν ἡ ψυχὴ τῆς τῶν Φηρίων ψυχῆς κατὰ τὸν χρόνον τοῦτον. Ρ. 212.