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2. Suppose, however, we should say "The fence surrounding the park,”—is the word surrounding to be reckoned a preposition, - inasmuch as it marks unasserted relation? Such an example shows, at least, that the usual distinction of the parts of speech is not so absolute as to prevent one class of words from sometimes appearing in the province of another. Surrounding seems rather to have a qualifying influence on fence, being a participle or verbal adjective. But it may be observed, that there are some words precisely similar to the verbal term we have just employed, and which are very generally parsed as prepositions. Take, for example, "A report concerning the man:" - this is equivalent to "A report affecting the man ;" and yet it is customary to call affecting the participle of a transitive verb, and concerning a preposition. In imitation of a French phraseology, we used to say " A report touching an individual;" and touching is as well entitled as concerning to be accounted a preposition.*

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3. Prepositions, properly so called, are such words as Above, After, Beyond, With, Before, To, At, From, Through, On, Under, Against, Into, &c. But those words which are generally classed as prepositions are not invariably used as such.

4. The Adverb modifies the meaning of a Verb, an Adjective, or another Adverb.

"He writes legibly;"-" Winter fast approaches;"are examples of verbs receiving a modification of their meaning. In the one instance legibly modifies writes; in

* Concerning, respecting, excepting, are participles of transitive verbs, governing an objective case. During is the participle of a neuter verb. Notwithstanding is compounded of not and the participle of an intransitive verb. All these words are commonly, but improperly, called preposi

tions.

the other instance fast modifies approaches. examples, "The observation is very just,”

d

Again; in the

"The timber is

too hard," we have a modification of the adjective just by the word very, and of the adjective hard by the word too. Such modifying terms, or adverbs as they are called, may themselves receive farther modification; as, "He is very easily offended;" where offended is modified by the adverb easily, and easily is modified by the adverb very.

To modify the meaning of a word is to restrict or extend its application.

5. Exception has been taken against that part of the definition of an adverb which describes it as used to modify another adverb. "This," says Connon, "is unobjectionable as a description of a fact in grammar, but it cannot be received as a definition, since the word that is defined is made use of in the definition." It should be understood, however, that the nature of that adverb which receives modification from another adverb has been already defined in the former part of the definition. In the first place, a word which modifies a verb or an adjective is called an Adverb; and, in the second place, a word which modifies the word modifying a verb or adjective is also called an Adverb. Such is the relation of the parts of the definition.

6. Adverbs are compendious forms equivalent to prepositional expressions of place, time, manner, or degree. Thus the adverb there signifies in that place; then signifies at that time; quietly denotes in a quiet manner; too means in an excessive degree. All adverbs admit of being thus

translated.

7. Adverbs are such words as Very, Truly, Often, Seldom, Once, Quickly, Otherwise, How, However, Here, There, Hence, Softly, &c. A multitude of others end in -ly, which is generally considered as an abbreviation of the word like.

8. The Conjunction joins one notion or thought to another, in order to express, but not to assert, choice, combination, and other ideas.

In the words "Henry accompanied William" there is

affirmed a connexion between Henry and William; and the word which expresses the connexion expresses also the affirmation. But we often find connexion expressed unassertively. Thus: 66 Henry and William are brothers;" here the word and expresses the union of two notions, but does not assert the union. Thus, again: "I did not go yesterday, but I shall go to-morrow;" the word but expresses, without asserting, a connexion between the two thoughts, it brings them together that it may present them in contrast. So also: "I will go if the weather shall prove favourable;" the word if brings two thoughts together, and expresses, without asserting, the one as a condition on which depends the performance of the other. Such connecting

terms are called Conjunctions.

9. Conjunctions are such words as And, Also, But, Neither, Nor, If, Because, That, Though, Therefore, Lest, Than, Yet, &c.

10. The Interjection is an abrupt expression of thought or emotion.

The principal words belonging to this class are those ejaculations which correspond to the instinctive sounds uttered by the inferior animals. The abrupt expressions of human feeling are so various in form and signification that they seem entitled to rank as parts of speech, although some grammarians contend that they no more deserve that distinction, than the neighing of a horse, or the lowing of a

COW.

11. Interjections are such words as O! Ah! Alas! Tush! Lo! Heighho! Pshaw! Ha! Hark! Adieu ! &c.

Many elliptical expressions, such as Hail, Welcome, Doubtless, Silence, Nevertheless, when used in an isolated manner, either may be parsed as Interjections, or, by supplying the ellipses, may be shown to belong to other classes of words. Thus: "He considers, doubtless, that he is fortunate," may

be extended into "He considers that he is fortunate, is doubtless."*

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EXERCISES.

12. Distinguish the parts of speech in the following sentences, and give such explanations of each word as the preceding chapters have furnished.

Great Britain has very few islands on its eastern coast. Sinai is not a particular summit, but a group of extremely barren and rugged cliffs, tumbled about in great disorder, and affording prospects of the wildest grandeur. Too daring prince, ah! whither dost thou run? How pathetically were the deaths of Saul and Jonathan lamented by David, although he was the anointed successor to the throne of Israel. Hail! awful scenes that calm the troubled breast. The rest of the ground, excepting a farm-house, is entirely open, and lies between two ridges. The arrangement, indeed, is already completed, if he has obtained the sanction of James or William. Will you accompany me to town? O, yes†, I will gladly go with you, for I am quite disposed for a walk. The mountains of Seir command an extensive prospect over dreary heights, amongst which, however, are some fertile valleys. The French troops were equally vigilant at the gates, yet made no objections to our passing through the town. False wizard, avaunt!

*Such words in their state of isolation are frequently called Adverbs, -a class which, Horne Tooke says, is made "the common repository of all heterogeneous unknown corruptions." Let us never call a word an Adverb merely for want of a better name. Unless another word is mo

dified, no adverb is present.

"Aye, yea, and yes, are the French imperatives, aye and ayez (have thou and have ye), of the verb avoir, to have. 'Give or grant me this.' -'Yes, have it.' No or nay (French n'aye), away with it.' It is thus that we indicate assent or denial." - Booth's Gram. p. 260.

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1. Inflexion, which is a changing of the terminations of words to express various modifications of meaning, is applied to Nouns for the expression of the three accidents of Number, Gender, and Case.

Number is the distinction between a word as referring to one thing and a word as referring to more things than one. Gender is a distinction of nouns or pronouns corresponding to the distinction of sex.

Case is a distinction which either marks or implies the dependence or independence of a noun or pronoun.

Of Number.

2. The distinction of Number is described by the words Singular and Plural; a noun being of the singular number when it expresses one of a class, as Man, Time, Speech; and of the plural number when it expresses more than one of a class, as Men, Times, Speeches.

3. The plural formation is usually dependent on the singular; and the general rule is that the plural is formed by adding s or es to the singular, s, when the termination of the singular will unite immediately with the sound of that letter, es, when otherwise. Thus: Boy, boys; River, rivers; Robe, robes; Face, faces; Bush, bushes; Gas, gases.

4. Nouns ending in y, a termination which has supplanted the ancient ie, preserve ie in their plurals; as, Lady, ladies; Sympathy, sympathies. But when y succeeds a vowel, the juxtaposition of three vowels in the plural is avoided by simply adding s; as, Tray, trays; Joy, joys; Valley, valleys. Money, Chimney, and Journey, should merely add s, though

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