to Bohemia, where it led to the martyrdom of John Huss, in 1415. By the beginning of the fifteenth century the demand for church reform had become general. From 1378 to 1417 there were two Popes, one at Rome and one at Avignon, in France, each claiming to be the rightful successor, and the contest which took place between the two injured the Papacy greatly throughout Christendom. In 1414 a Council of the Church met at Constance, in Switzerland, to heal the breach, and, among other things, drew up a list of eighteen important reforms in church practices and procedure which it demanded, but unsuccessfully. These are enumerated in selection 149. Princes, legislative assemblies, citizens, priests, and sometimes even bishops protested in vain. Extracts from the protests of the Cathedral preacher at Strassburg, and his prediction of a religious revolt if matters were not remedied, are contained in selection 150, as typical of many of the time. Selection 151 reproduces fourteen of the ninety-five theses of Luther, as illustrating his point of view and the nature of the academic protests he at first made.

Gradually led from protest to open revolt, Luther was finally excommunicated from the Church, in 1520, and the Diet of Worms, in 1521, ordered him arrested and confined, his writings burned, and his sympathizers treated as he was to be. We can understand this attitude better if we remember that the heretic was the anarchist of the Middle Ages, and was virtually guilty of treason to the State. The selection from Saint Thomas Aquinas's Summa Theologica (152) will serve to make clearer the dangerous position of Luther and his followers, as viewed by the Church. The final selection (153) reproduces the English Act of Supremacy, which severed England from the Church of Rome and erected the King as head of the English Church and the defender of the faith in England.

147. Wycliffe on the Enemies of Christ

(Arnold, Thomas, Select English Works of John Wycliffe, vol. 1, p. 208.

Oxford, 1869)

John Wycliffe (1320?-84), a popular English preacher and Oxford divinity graduate, was led by a study of the Bible to attack many of the claims and practices of the Church. His revolt against authority was as direct and vigorous as the later revolt of Luther, but he lacked the printing-press which Luther had to

give effectiveness to his challenge. His attacks, however, deep

ened the English feeling of unrest. The following selection is a sample of his attacks, this being against the head of the Church in England for his opposition to the translation of the Bible into English, and naming the Pope and cardinals, bad bishops and rulers, and the mendicant friars as the three chief enemies of Christ. Wycliffe was only one of many who attacked the practices of the Church and the lives of its representatives in the days before Luther.

And herfore to greet Bishop Engelond, as men seien, is yvel paied (pleased) that Goddis lawe is writun in Englis, to lewide men (laymen); and he pursueth a preest, for that he writith to men this Englishe, and somonith him and traveilith him, that it is hard to him to rowte. And thus he pursueth another preest by the helpe of Phariseis, for he prechide Cristis gospel freeli withouten fadlis.

O men that ben on Cristis half, helpe ye now agens Anticrist! for the perilous tyme is comen that Crist and Poul telden bifore. Butt oo confort is of knygttis, that thei savoren myche the gospel and han wille to rede in Englishe the gospel of Cristis liif. For aftirward, if God wole, this lordship shal be taken from preestis; and so the staaff that makith hem hardi agens Crist and his lawe. The firste is the pope and cardinals, bi fals lawe that thei han made; the secounde is emperours (and) bishopis, whiche dispisen Cristis lawe; the thridde is thes Pharisees possessioners and beggeris. Alle thes three, Goddis enemyes, traveilen in ypocrisie, and in worldi coveitise, and idilnesse in Goddis lawe. Crist helpe his Chirche from these fendis, for thei figten perilously.

148. Wycliffe's Followers attack the Pope and the Practice of Indulgences

(Arnold, Thomas, Select English Works of John Wycliffe, vol. II, pp. 457-58. Oxford, 1870)

Wycliffe died in 1384, and shortly after his death his followers issued a defense, in which they charged the then Pope, Urban VI,

as being the Antichrist, and attacked, one hundred and thirtythree years before Luther's theses, the church theory as to indulgences. They said, in part:

Furste, that this pope Urban tho sixte beres not strength of Seint Petur in erthe, but thai affermen hym to be the son of Anticriste, and that no verrey pope was sith tho tyme of Silvester (I) pope.

Here Cristen men seyne pleynly, that whatever pope or other preste, in maner of lyvynge or techynge or lawis-makynge, contrarius Crist, is verrey Anticrist, adversary of Jesus Crist, and of his apostlis, ande of alle Cristen pepul. . . .

Tho secunde tyme, See ye Cristen pepl, tho willeful poverte of Jesus Crist, how he hade nougt by worldly lordschipe one howse where he mygt reste his heved, but lyved by temporale almes of Mary Mawdeleyne ande other holy wymmen, as tho gospel sais. Ande see ye wisely, whether oure popis, makyng stronge palayces with pore mennes lyvelodis, with al ther glorie of richesses and jewelis, acordem with this. poreness of Crist.

Tho thrid tyme, See, yee Cristen pepul, tho charitabul lyif of Crist, ande like whether oure popis contrarien hym. Where he was moste bisye in spirituale occupacione, these popis bene moste bisy in delynge of beneficis to him that moste muck brynggen or worldly favour. . .

Where Criste mekely travelid with grete penaunce upon his fete to preche tho gospel, these popes, more then emperoures, resten in palaycis chargid with pretious in ther feete and in al ther stynkynge carione, ande prechen not tho gospel to Cristen men, but crien ever aftur glorye and riches, and make newe lawes for to magnify ther worldly state, that Crist and his apostlis durste never do.

Where Crist gafe his precious blode and lyif for to make pes and charite, these popis maken ande mayntenys werre thoroweout Cristendame, for to hold ther worldly state, moste contrarie ageyne Crist and his apostlis, ande herto spenden tho almes of kyngis, and appressen Cristen rewenes by newe subsidies.

And, that is werst, thai senden indulgencis, foundid as thai faynen on Cristis charite and his dethe, to sle alle men contrarie to theire lustis. Certis this semes contrarious to Crist and his lovers. Seynt Robert Grosthede (Bishop of Lincoln) sais that this court is cause, welle, and begynnynge of destruccione of Cristendame, and loser of al tho worlde. Ande trewly, if thai be thus contrary to Crist in lyvynge and techyng, as ther open dedis and tho world crien, thai ben cursid heretikis, manquellars bodily and gostly, Anticrist, and Sathanas transfigurid into aungelis (of) ligt. Ande, as this worthi clerk Grosthede proves, ande certis no man is verrey pope but in als myche as he sewis Crist; and in so myche Cristen men wole do aftur hym, ande no more, for alle bulles and censuris, for no creature of God.

149. List of Church Abuses demanding Reform

(Von der Hardt, Magnum Constantiense Concilium, vol. IV. 1452)

A dominant note, running through later medieval writings and sermons, is a constant criticism of the Church and a demand for reform. In 1414-18 a Council of the Church, meeting at Constance, in Switzerland, made a serious attempt in this direction by drawing up a list of the abuses within the Church which it felt should be remedied. The attempt at reform failed, but the list of abuses, in view of the Protestant Revolt which broke a century later, is interesting.

The holy Council of Constance decrees and ordains that the Supreme Pontiff who shall next, by the grace of God, assume office, shall, in conjunction with this holy council, or with the deputies of the several nations, reform the Church, before the council dissolves, in head and members, as well as the Roman curia, in accordance with justice and the proper organization of the Church, in all the respects enumerated below, which are presented by the nations as requiring reform:

The number, character and nationality of the Lords Cardinals.
The Reservations made by the Apostolic See.

The Annates both the servitia communia and servitia minuta.
The Collation to Benefices and Expectative Favors.
Appeals to the Roman Curia.

The functions of the (papal) Chancery and Plenitentiary.
Exemptions and Incorporations made during the Schism.

Benefices in Commendam.

Confirmation of Elections.

Income during Vacancies.

The non-alienation of the possessions of the Roman Church or other

churches.

For what reasons and in what manner shall a Pope be corrected or deposed?

The Extirpation of Heresy.

Dispensations.

The means of support of Pope and Cardinals.

Indulgences.

Tenths.

150. A German Priest's Views as to Coming Reform

(L. Dacheux, Jean Geiler. Paris, 1876. Trans. by Coulton)

Johann Geiler (1445-1510) took his doctorate in Theology at Freiburg, and became Cathedral Preacher at Strassburg, in 1478. This position he held until his death. He hated the abuses of the

Church of his time and thundered against them. He died believing that a catastrophe was impending. Two extracts from his sermons will illustrate his feeling as to the need for reforms. Preaching before the Emperor Maximilian, a few years before his death, he cried out:

Since neither Pope nor Emperor, kings nor bishops, will reform our life, God will send a man for the purpose. I hope to see that day, but I am too old. Many of you will see it; think then, I pray you, of these last words.

In another sermon on existing conditions, he said:

O Lord my God, how falsely now do even those live who seem most spiritual Parsons and Monks, Beguines and Penitents. Their study is not to work God's works but to conceal the devil's works. Among these all is outward show, and there is no truth, nought else but dung besnowed or buried under snow; without is the glistering whiteness of righteousness and honesty, but within a conscience reeking with vermin and with the stench of sin. The day shall come when the Sun of Righteousness shall melt the snow, and then shall the secrets of your hearts be revealed. And would that the filth of our sins were at least covered with the appearance of snow, that our sin, like Sodom, were not published abroad without shame!

151. Luther's Theses illustrated

(Ranke, Deutsche Geschichte in Zeitalter der Reformation, vol. IV, p. 83; trans. by Wace and Buchheim)

The ninety-five theses which Martin Luther made out and nailed to the church door in Wittenberg in October, 1517, were after the university form of challenge to debate, and were in Latin. Of them Luther himself said that they were not his mature conclusions, and that they contained nothing he would stubbornly adhere to, but that they were "somewhat obscurely expressed, as was the custom in such cases," so that his opponent in debate might not be too easily driven to the wall. In a letter to Pope Leo, six months afterward, Luther expressed surprise and regret that they should have been given such wide circulation. The reproduction of a few of the theses will illustrate their nature.