In the desire and with the purpose of elucidating the truth, a disputation will be held on the underwritten propositions at Wittenberg, under the presidency of the Reverend Martin Luther, Monk of the Order of Saint Augustine, Master of Arts and Sacred Theology, and ordinary Reader of the same in that place. He therefore asks those who cannot be present and discuss the subject with us orally, to do so by letter in their absence, In the name of our Lord Jesus Christ. Amen. . . . 5. The Pope has neither the will nor the power to remit any penalties, except those which he has imposed by his own authority, or by that of the canons.

6. The Pope has no power to remit any guilt, except by declaring and warranting it to have been remitted by God; or at most by remitting cases reserved for himself; in which cases, if his power were despised, guilt would certainly remain.

13. The dying pay all penalties by death, and are already dead to the canon laws, and are by right relieved from them.

20. Therefore the Pope, when he speaks of the plenary remission of all penalties, does not mean really of all, but only of those imposed by himself.

21. Thus those preachers of indulgences are in error who say that, by the indulgences of the Pope, a man is loosed and saved from all punishment.

22. For in fact he remits to souls in purgatory no penalty which they would have had to pay in this life according to the canons.

23. If any entire remission of all penalties can be granted to any one, it is certain that it is granted to none but the most perfect, that is to very few.

24. Hence, the greater part of the people must needs be deceived by this indiscriminate and high-sounding promise of release from penalties.

25. Such power as the Pope has over purgatory in general, such has every bishop in his own diocese, and every curate in his own parish, in particular.

88. Again; what greater good could the Church receive than if the Pope, instead of once, as he does now, were to bestow these remissions and participations a hundred times a day on any one of the faithful?

89. Since it is the salvation of souls, rather than money, that the Pope seeks by his pardons, why does he suspend the letters and pardons granted long ago, since they are equally efficacious?

91. If then pardons were preached according to the spirit and mind of the Pope, all these questions would be resolved with ease; nay, would not exist.

94. Christians should be exhorted to strive to follow Christ, their head, through pains, deaths, and hells.

95. And thus trust to enter heaven through many tribulations, rather than in the security of peace.

152. Saint Thomas Aquinas on the Treatment of Heresy (Summa Theologica, Sec. Secundæ, Quæst. XI, Art. III; trans. by J. H. Robinson, in Pennsylvania Reprints, vol. III, no. 6)

Thomas Aquinas (1225?-74) was a famous Italian Dominican scholar, generally regarded as one of the three great scholastics of the Middle Ages. He brought scholasticism to its highest development by harmonizing Aristotle with the doctrines of the Church. His Summa Theologica, written during the last three years of his life, has ever since been accepted as an authoritative statement of the doctrines of the Church.

The selection here given deals with heresy, the great crime of the Middle Ages and early modern times, a crime worthy of the most severe punishment. The heretic was the anarchist of that time, one who was virtually guilty of treason to an institution necessary for salvation and the upholder of order and government. Not only was the heretic excommunicated and placed under political disabilities, but even torture and death were regarded as justified to stamp out the dangerous contagion. Considering the age, the mildness and fairness of the reasoning in the selection here given will be apparent.

The selection also affords a good example of the plan of organization and treatment of this famous textbook.

Proceeding to the third question. First. It would appear that heretics are to be tolerated, for the Apostle says (2 Timothy, II, 24), "The Lord's servant must be gentle, in meekness, correcting them that oppose themselves to the truth; if peradventure God may give them repentance unto the knowledge of the truth, and they may recover themselves out of the snare of the devil." But if heretics are not tolerated but delivered over unto death, they are deprived of the opportunity of repentance. Hence, this would seem contrary to the precept of the Apostle.

Second. Moreover, that which is necessary in the church must be tolerated. But heresies are necessary in the church. For the Apostle says (1 Corinthians, XI, 19), “For there must be also heresies among you that they which are approved may be made manifest among you." Therefore, it would seem that heresies are to be tolerated.

Third. Moreover, the Lord commands his servants (Matthew, XIII), that they should let the tares grow until the harvest, which is the end of the world, as is explained in the Interlinear Glossa. But the tares signify the heretics according to the interpretation of the saints. Therefore heretics are to be tolerated.

But against this is to be urged the saying of the Apostle (Titus, III,

10), “A man that is heretical after a first and second admonition, refuse, knowing that such a one is perverted."

I reply that heretics must be considered from two points of view, namely, as regards the heretic himself, and secondly, as regards the church. As for the heretics themselves, there is their sin for which they deserve not only to be separated from the church by excommunication, but to be sent out of the world by death. It is, indeed, a much more serious offence to corrupt the faith, upon which depends the life of the soul, than to falsify coin, by means of which the temporal life is sustained. Hence, if counterfeiters and other malefactors are justly hurried to death by secular rulers, much the more may those who are convicted of heresy not only be excommunicated but justly put to a speedy death. But on the side of the church, there is mercy looking for the conversion of the erring. She does not therefore condemn immediately, but only after a first and second admonition, as the Apostle teaches. Should the heretic still prove stubborn, the church, no longer hoping for his conversion, shall provide for the safety of others by separating him from herself by a sentence of excommunication. She further relinquishes him to the secular judgment to be put out of the world by death. Jerome also says (on the passage in Galatians, v), "a little leaven"; and as provided in 24. qu. 3, cap. 16 (Canon Law). "Foul flesh must be cut away, and mangy sheep must be kept from the fold lest the whole house be burned, the whole mass corrupted, the whole body be destroyed. Arius was but a spark in Alexandria but since this spark was not promptly quenched, the whole world has been devastated by the flames.”

As to the first argument, namely that which relates to the meekness in which a heretic should be admonished a first and a second time; if, after that, he refuses to return he is to be looked upon as perverted, as appears from the authority of the Apostle above cited (in the argument beginning, But against).

As to the second argument, any advantage which may proceed from heretics, is in no way intentional on their part, as for example, the proof they furnish according to the Apostle, of the constancy of the faithful, or as Augustine says - Lib. I de gen., cont. Manich. (cap. I, about the middle) — “Let us put away all slothfulness, carefully searching the Holy Scriptures." Their intention is, on the contrary, to corrupt the faith, and this is most harmful. We should, therefore, give more weight to those conscious aims which would cut them off, rather than the unintentional good, which would seem to countenance their toleration.

To the third argument we may reply, as it is written in the Decretals 24, qu. 3, cap. Beginning, It is to be observed that excommunication is one thing and extirpation another. One is excommunicated with a view, as the Apostle says (1 Cor. v, 5), "that the spirit may be saved in the day of the Lord." That heretics shall be totally extirpated by death, is not however, contrary to the command of God, for that command is to be

understood as applying only in the case when the tares cannot be destroyed, without destroying the wheat at the same time, as has been said in the preceding question, art. 8, argument 1, when we treated of heretics in common with infidels.

(26 Henry VIII, c. 1, 1534, Statutes of the Realm, 11, p. 492) The following act passed by the English Parliament, in 1534, definitely severed England from Rome, and established the King as the head of the English Church. It illustrates the parliamentary side of the Reformation.

An Act concernynge the Kynges Highnes to be supreme heed of the Churche of Englande and to have auctoryte to reforme and redresse all errours, heresyes and abuses yn the same.

Albeit the Kynges Majestie justely and rightfully is and oweth to be the supreme heed of the Churche of Englande, and so is recognysed by the clergy of this Realme in theyr convocacions; yet neverthelesse for corroboracion and confirmacion thereof, and for increase of vertue in Cristis Religion within this Realme of England, and to represse and extirpe all errours, heresies and other enormyties and abuses heretofore used in the same. Be it enacted by auctority of this present Parliament that the Kyng our Soveraign Lorde, his heires and successours Kynges of this Realme shall be takyn, acceptyed, and reputed the onely supreme heed in erthe of the Churche of England callyd Anglicana Ecclesia, and shall have and enjoye annexed and unyted to the Ymperyall Crowne of this Realme as well the title and style thereof, as all Honours Dignyties prehemynences jurisdiccions privileges auctorities ymunyties profitis and commodities to the said dignyties of supreme heed of the same Churche belongyng and apperteyning: And that our said Soveraigne Lorde his heires and successours Kynges of this Realme shall have full power and auctorite from tyme to tyme to visite represse redresse reforme order correct restrayne and amende all suche errours heresies abuses offences contempts and enormyties whatsoever they be whiche by any maner spirituall auctoryte or juristiccion ought or maie lawfullye be reformyd repressyd ordred redressyd correctyd restrayned or amendyd, most to the pleasure of almyghtie God the increase of vertue yn Chrystis Religion and for the conservacy of the peace unyte and tranquylyte of this Realme: Any usage custome foreyne laws foreyne auctoryte prescripcion or anye other thinge or thinges to the contrarie hereof notwithstandinge.

CHAPTER XIII

EDUCATIONAL RESULTS OF THE PROTESTANT

REVOLTS

I. LUTHERANS AND ANGLICANS

THE Readings in this chapter illustrate the development of Protestant education among the Lutherans and Anglicans. The first selection, from Rashdall (154), deals with the diffusion of education in later mediæval times, from which we may infer something as to the effect of the Reformation on educational institutions. The selection on the literary style of the different translations of the Bible (155), contrasting these with the Ciceronian, is an interesting explanation of the hold which these vernacular translations obtained from the first.

The extract from Luther's long address (156) is quite typical of the whole, and reveals his belief in the importance of the higher classical schools, when properly reformed, as a means for training learned ministers for the churches. Luther saw very clearly the need for teachers and preachers, and sets forth plainly the importance of the teacher's work (157). He even advances very modern arguments for the compulsory attendance of children at school (158).

Having abolished the old Church of Rome régime, it was necessary that the Lutherans reorganize the churches under the new form of worship, and for this some outline or form was necessary. These were supplied by the so-called Kirchenordnungen, worked out for the churches by Luther, Melanchthon, and Bugenhagen. An example of these is given in 159, from which their comprehensive nature may be discerned.

The schools also needed reorganization to fit them into the new Protestant state régime, and for this Schuleordnungen also were needed. Three of these are reproduced, the one prepared for Brieg (160), the Saxony Plan of Melanchthon (161), and the state school system adopted for Würtemberg (162). An outline of the Schulemethode adopted for the principality of Gotha, and a brief sketch of the important work of Duke Ernest, are given in 163. In England the Reformation zeal for education was far less