only give superficial knowledge, which would neither afford pleasure to the child, nor promote its real progress.

III. He opposed the undue cultivation of the memory and understanding, as hostile to true education. He placed the essence of education in the harmonious and uniform development of every faculty, so that the body should not be in advance of the mind, and that in the development of the mind, neither the physical powers, nor the affections, should be neglected; and that skill in action should be acquired at the same time with knowledge. When this point is secured, we may know that education has really begun, and that it is not merely superficial.

IV. He required close attention and constant reference to the peculiarities of every child, and of each sex, as well as to the characteristics of the people among whom he lived, in order that he might acquire the development and qualifications necessary for the situation to which the Creator destined him, when he gave him these active faculties, and be prepared to labor successfully for those among whom he was placed at his birth.

V. While Basedow introduced a multitude of subjects of instruction (R. 265) into the schools, without special regard to the development of the intellectual powers, Pestalozzi considered this plan as superficial. He limited the elementary subjects of instruction to Form, Number and Language, as the essential condition of definite and distinct knowledge; and believed that these elements should be taught with the utmost possible simplicity, comprehensiveness, and mutual connection.

VI. Pestalozzi, as well as Basedow, desired that instruction should commence with the intuition or simple perception of external objects and their relations. He was not, however, satisfied with this alone, but wished that the art of observing should also be acquired. He thought the things perceived of less consequence than the cultivation of the perceptive powers, which should enable the child to observe completely, to exhaust the subjects which should be brought before his mind.

VII. While the Philanthropinists attached great importance to special exercises of reflection, Pestalozzi would not make this a subject of separate study. He maintained that every subject of instruction should be properly treated, and thus become an exercise of thought; and believed that lessons in Number, and Proportion and Size, would give the best occasion for it.

VIII. Pestalozzi, as well as Basedow, attached great importance to Arithmetic, particularly to Mental Arithmetic. He valued it, however, in the limited view of its practical usefulness, but as an excellent means of strengthening the mind. He also introduced Geometry into the elementary schools, and the art connected with it, of modeling and drawing beautiful objects. He wished, in this way, to train the

eye, the hand, and the touch, for that more advanced species of drawing which had not been thought of before. Proceeding from the simple and intuitive, to the more complicated and difficult forms, he arranged a series of exercises, so gradual and complete, that the method of teaching this subject was soon brought to a good degree of perfection.

IX. The Philanthropinists introduced the instruction of language into the common schools, but limited it chiefly to the writing of letters and preparation of essays. But Pestalozzi was not satisfied with a lifeless repetition of the rules of grammar, nor yet with mere exercises for common life. He aimed at a development of the laws of language from within an introduction into its internal nature and construction and peculiar spirit - which would not only cultivate the intellect, but also improve the affections. . . .

X. Like Basedow, Rochow, and others, Pestalozzi introduced vocal music into the circle of school studies, on account of its powerful influence on the heart. But he was not satisfied that the children should learn to sing a few melodies by note or by ear. He wished them to know the rules of melody and rhythm, and dynamics to pursue a regular course of instruction, descending to its very elements, and rendering the musical notes as familiar as the sounds of the letters. The extensive work of Nageli and Pfeiffer has contributed very much to give this branch of instruction a better form.

XI. He opposed the abuse which was made of the Socratic method in many of the Philanthropinic and other schools, by attempting to draw something out of children before they had received any knowledge. He recommends, on the contrary, in the early periods of instruction, the established method of dictation by the teacher and repetition by the scholar, with a proper regard to rhythm, and at a later period, especially in the mathematical and other subjects which involve reasoning, the modern method, in which the teacher merely gives out the problems in a proper order, and leaves them to be solved by the pupils, by the exertion of their own powers.

XII. Pestalozzi opposes strenuously the opinion that religious instruction should be addressed exclusively to the understanding; and shows that religion lies deep in the hearts of men, and that it should not be enstamped from without, but developed from within; that the basis of religious feeling is to be found in the childish disposition to love, to thankfulness, to veneration, obedience and confidence toward its parents; that these should be cultivated and strengthened and directed toward God; and that religion should be formally treated of at a later period in connection with the feelings thus excited. As he requires the mother to direct the first development of all the faculties of her child, he assigns to her especially the task of first cultivating the religious feelings.

XIII. Pestalozzi agreed with Basedow, that mutual affection ought

to reign between the educator and the pupil, both in the house and in the school, in order to render education effectual and useful. He was, therefore, as little disposed as Basedow, to sustain school despotism; but he did not rely on artificial excitements, such as those addressed to emulation. He preferred the children should find their best reward in the consciousness of increased intellectual vigor; and expected the teacher to render the instruction so attractive, that the delightful feeling of progress should be the strongest excitement to industry and to morality.

XIV. Pestalozzi attached as much importance to the cultivation of the bodily powers, and the exercise of the senses, as the Philanthropinists, and in his publications, pointed out a graduated course for this purpose. But as Gutsmuths, Vieth, Jahn, and Clias treated this subject very fully, nothing further concerning it was written by his immediate followers.

Such are the great principles which entitle Pestalozzi to the high praise of having given a more natural, a more comprehensive and deeper foundation for education and instruction, and of having called into being a method which is far superior to any that preceded it.

272. Hofwyl as seen by an American

(Griscom, John, A Year in Europe, vol. 1, pp. 382-98. New York, 1823; 2 vols.)

The chief influence of Griscom's book, previously referred to in the introduction to R. 268, was along the lines of reformatory and charitable education and the development of manual-labor schools, in both of which we were then just making a beginning. His description of his visits to Pestalozzi also awakened some interest. The following is selected from a rather long description of his visit to Fellenberg's Institutions, at Hofwyl.

Fellenberg, and his Principles of Education

I was introduced to Mr. Fellenberg by three letters two from Paris and one from Geneva, and was cordially received, having recorded my name and residence in a book in the office, and sent in my card and letters. He is a man of middle age, of a mild and agreeable countenance, and of polite and genteel manners. He seated me on a sofa, and entered upon an explanation of the principles of his establishment, and the particular views of education, which had induced him to engage in it. He considers society as divisible into three distinct parts; the higher (comprehending the noble and wealthy), the middling, and the poor. The greatest defects of education he supposes to exist in the two extreme classes, and that these distinctions or classes among men would always prevail in every civilized country he be

lieved to be incontrovertible; and, of course, any attempt to break down the distinction would be fruitless. It is, therefore, of consequence that they should be each educated in a manner conformable to their situations, but in such a way as to develop, to the highest extent, the best faculties of their nature; and, while it preserves the proper relation between them, it should, at the same time, encourage the feelings of kindliness and sympathy on the one part, and of respect and love on the other. This, he thought, could be effected upon no plan so effectually as bringing them up side by side, so that they should have each other constantly in view, without any necessity whatever of mixing or associating. The rich, by observing the industry, the skill, and the importance of the laboring classes, would learn to entertain just sentiments respecting them, and the poor, by feeling and experiencing the kindly influence of the rich, would regard them as benefactors.

With respect to the best means of cultivating the faculties which, in their due operation, are to promote the permanent happiness of men, he considers agriculture as affording opportunities and advantages of the greatest importance, and next to this, the mechanic arts. Agreeably to these leading views, his establishment consists of two distinct parts: a boarding-school of the sons of noblemen and gentlemen, in which no pains are spared to provide them with teachers in every useful science; and of a school of boys, taken from the poorest class, who are clothed and fed in a very plain, coarse, and farmer-like style, and who work diligently in the fields at employments adapted to their strength and skill. During two hours in the day in summer, and more in winter, these boys are instructed in letters, and in music. They are likewise introduced into the workshops, and taught the business of a blacksmith, a carpenter, a wheelwright, a cabinet-maker, a turner, a shoemaker, or a worker in brass, according as a particular talent for any of these may manifest itself. The produce of the labor of these boys bears no inconsiderable proportion of the expense of their maintenance and instruction.

The School for Poor Boys

In the evening the Count conducted us to the farm-house, where the class of the poor boys are lodged, fed, and instructed. . . . Their teacher (Vehrly) is a young man of very extraordinary qualifications. He received his early education from his father, who filled, in a distinguished manner, the office of schoolmaster for thirty years. . . . He lives with them, eats, sleeps, and works with them, dresses as they do, and makes himself their friend and companion, as well as their instructor. He is eminently fitted for such an occupation by his genius, his address, his temper and disposition, and above all, by his religious principles. The school-room serves also for a shoemaker's shop, and probably accommodates, occasionally, the tailor and harness-maker. The boys always

take a lesson of one hour between supper and bed. This lesson is frequently confined to music. . . . The boys of this class appear to be very healthy and contented. They are taught to pay the utmost attention to cleanliness. Their clothing in summer is of coarse cotton, and, in winter, of woolen cloth. They go barefooted, except when they work in the fields, or when the state of the weather requires them to wear shoes and stockings; but their heads always remain uncovered. . . . In summer they rise at five, and in winter at six; and after having dressed themselves and said their prayers, they receive instruction for an hour. They then breakfast, after which they go to work until half-past eleven. They then have half an hour for dinner; after which Vehrly gives them a lesson of one hour. They work out till six, and after eating their supper, receive further instruction, which concludes with prayer, and they are generally in bed between eight and nine o'clock. But this distribution of time varies according to the seasons. In winter five or six hours a day are devoted to sedentary instruction. The morning of the first day of the week is always devoted to exercises of piety, and after dinner some hours are given to instruction in sacred history. But their lessons are by no means confined to the school-room. Vehrly takes pleasure in questioning them on subjects of natural history, geography, religion, morals, or any other useful topic, while they are at work in the fields or shops; and it may readily be conceived, that, with this devotion to the improvement of his pupils, occasions will perpetually present themselves of conveying instruction in every kind of knowledge calculated to expand the minds of children and to cultivate their best affections.

Pestalozzian Methods

With regard to the most effective means of eliciting the powers of the mind, and of conducting the literary exercises of young people, great credit is due to Pestalozzi, whose veteran labors, as one of the most enlightened teachers of the age, were well known and acknowledged long before the commencement of the Hofwyl Institution. His plans of communicating knowledge are in a great measure practiced by Vehrly. Much pains are taken to impress on the minds of the pupils a deep sense of the importance of time, and of habits of industry; and from the reports that have been published by commissioners appointed to examine the establishment, it is evident that the most favorable results have attended these endeavors. . . . In a few years, or even in less time, they learn to read, write, and calculate with and without the use of pencil or pen; the elements of drawing become familiar to them; and they acquire good notions of geometry, especially in its relation to field. surveying, and its application to descriptive drawing. Botany and mineralogy constitute part of their amusements. They become well acquainted with all the plants of Hofwyl, and their different qualities, both the sanitary and noxious. Of the minerals also, they acquire