CHAPTER XXVIII NEW CONCEPTIONS OF THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS THE Readings of this chapter relate largely to the rise of teachertraining and the normal school, the grading of instruction, and the new theories as to the educational purpose and process which have come in during the latter part of the nineteenth century. The first nations to organize special institutions for the training of teachers were the German States and France, the former taking the lead. Still later came England and the United States. These four were the leading nations in the movement, up to beyond the middle of the nineteenth century, and from these four the teachertraining idea has spread over the world. Selections 344 and 345 relate to the German teachers' seminaries, as early travelers abroad found them, the first describing their work in general terms, and the second a specific institution. Selection 346 describes a French normal school of the same period. Selections 347 and 348 relate to beginnings in England, the first describing the origins of the training-college system, and the second the pupil-teacher system which was introduced later on. All these descriptions were influential in getting under way the early American development. Selection 349 reproduces the recommendation of Governor Clinton, of New York, for the inauguration of teacher-training in the academies, a recommendation which was at once adopted by the New York legislature. The next, 350 a-c, describes the real beginnings of the state normal school idea in the United States - 350 a reproducing the first Massachusetts law, 350 b the first admission regulations and course of instruction, and 350 c Horace Mann's conception of the importance of the normal school in a state system of public instruction, as expressed at the dedication of the first building erected in the United States for the specific purpose of training teachers. The next group of selections relates to the transformation in the instruction of the school produced by the coming of professional training and the industrial and social revolutions of the nineteenth century. Selection 351 reproduces a number of extracts from popular early American school textbooks, to illustrate the old type of subject-matter instruction. Selection 352 reproduces a typical teacher's contract of the same period, which also is illustrative of the early textbook and fact-instruction type of school. The next selection (353) is introduced to show the partly ungraded character and subjects of study of the schools of the city of Berlin, at about the same time. The next selection (354) describes the process of grading American schools which took place during the first half of the nineteenth century- the evolution at Providence, Rhode Island, being taken as a type of early American development. The remaining selections of the chapter relate to nineteenthcentury educational theory and practice. Selections 355 and 356 give good statements as to the nature and importance of the work done by Herbart. Selection 357 is a good brief statement of scientific progress and of the changes in psychology during the century, while selection 364 compares the psychology of Pestalozzi and his followers with that of more recent educational workers. Selection 358 gives a good brief exposition of Froebel's educational ideas, by his most important interpreter and propagandist. Selections 359 to 363 relate to the movement for the introduction of science study. Selection 359 contrasts the English and German universities of the mid-nineteenth century in the matter of scientific research. Selections 360 and 361 describe the English elementary and secondary education at the same time, revealing the dearth of modern studies. Selections 362 and 363 give the argument and the conclusions of Herbert Spencer on the question he raised as to "What Knowledge is of Most Worth?" Selections 365 and 366 describe the recent transformation of school instruction from the older textbook type (351) to instruction which tries to relate the work of the school to life outside. The first (365) shows the difficulties experienced in transforming a school system of the old type into the new, as illustrated by China; and the second (366), illustrates, from the teaching of history, the modern attempt to socialize all school work. 344. The German Seminaries for Teachers (Bache, Alexander D., Report on Education in Europe, pp. 325–26. Philadelphia, 1839) In 1836 the trustees of the newly founded Girard College, at Philadelphia, an institution for the education of orphans, sent Professor A. D. Bache "to visit all establishments in Europe resembling Girard College." On his return, in 1839, his Report on Education in Europe was printed. He devoted much space to an enthusiastic description of the Pestalozzian methods, as he had seen them in the schools of Holland and the German States, and had the following to say with reference to the German system for training teachers. When education is to be rapidly advanced, Seminaries for Teachers offer the means of securing this result. An eminent teacher is selected as Director of the Seminary; and by aid of competent assistants, and while benefiting the community by the instruction given in the schools attached to the Seminary, trains, yearly, from thirty to forty youths in the enlightened practice of his methods; these, in turn, become teachers of schools, which they are fit at once to conduct, without the failures and mistakes usual with novices; for though beginners in name, they have acquired, in the course of two or three years spent at the Seminary, an experience equivalent to many years of unguided efforts. This result has been fully realized in the success of the attempts to spread methods of Pestalozzi and others through Prussia. The plan has been adopted, and is yielding its appropriate fruits in Holland, Switzerland, France, and Saxony; while in Austria, where the method of preparing teachers by their attendance on the primary schools is still adhered to, the schools are stationary, and behind those of Northern and Middle Germany. These Seminaries produce a strong esprit de corps among teachers, which tends powerfully to interest them in their profession, to attach them to it, to elevate it in their eyes, and to stimulate them to improve constantly upon the attainments with which they may have commenced its exercise. By their aid a standard of examination in the theory and practice of instruction is furnished, which may be fairly exacted of candidates who have chosen a different way to obtain access to the profession. 345. A German Teachers' Seminary described (Bache, Alexander D., Report on Education in Europe, pp. 237–40. Philadelphia, 1839) The preceding selection deals with the German Teachers' Seminaries in general, and the following describes the work of one of the best of the time (1838), located at Weissenfels, in Saxony. This seminary, for the education of teachers for the elementary schools, is one of four belonging to the province of Saxony, and was last organized in 1822. It combines within its premises, or in the neighborhood, so as to be subject to the control of the same director, the follow ing establishments: 1. The normal school, or seminary for teachers, a government institution. 2. A preparatory school, subsidiary to the former, and established by the enterprise of its teachers. 3. A seminary school, or burgher school, of four hundred pupils already described. 4. An elementary school for poor children, of two hundred pupils. 5. A school for the deaf and dumb, of twenty-five pupils, established in 1828, and supported by the government. The last three mentioned schools afford practice to the students of the seminary. The government of these establishments is confided to a director, who is responsible immediately to the provincial school-board in Magdeburg. He has the personal charge of the seminary in which he gives instruction, and of which he superintends the domestic economy, discipline, and policy. He is assisted in the seminary by three teachers, who meet him once a week in conference, to discuss the progress and conduct of the pupils, the plans of instruction, and other matters relating to the school. There are also seven assistant teachers, five for the seminary school, and two for the deaf and dumb institution, who also assist in the seminary itself. Once a month there is a general meeting of the teachers of all the schools just. enumerated, for similar purposes. Applicants for admission are required to produce certificates of baptism, of moral conduct, and of health, besides an engagement on the part of their parents or guardians to pay an annual sum of fifty thalers (thirty-seven dollars) for maintenance. These papers must be forwarded to the director a fortnight before the day of examination. The candidates are examined at a certain time of the year (after Easter), in the presence of all the teachers of the school, and their attainments must prove satisfactory in Bible and church history, the Lutheran Catechism, reading, writing, German grammar, especially the orthography of the language, the ground-rules of arithmetic (mental and written), geography and history, and natural history and philosophy, of the grade of the highest class of a burgher school. They must also be able to play, at sight, easy pieces of music upon the violin. The usual age of admission is eighteen; and the lowest at which they are admissible, seventeen. On entrance they are entitled to free lodging and instruction, and, if their conduct and progress are satisfactory, in general, receive a yearly allowance of twenty-five dollars, which is equivalent, nearly, to the cost of their maintenance. Their clothing and school books are provided by the pupils. The modes of preparation judged most appropriate by the authorities of the seminary are, the attendance on a burgher school, with private lessons from a competent teacher, or entrance into the preparatory establishment at Weissenfels. A gymnasium is considered by no means a proper place for the preparation of pupils, its courses, discipline, and mode of life having a different tendency from that required by the future teacher of a common school. The admission of new pupils takes place with some ceremony, in presence of the teachers and pupils. The director gives a charge, in which he makes them acquainted with the rules of the school, chiefly those relating to moral conduct, to obedience to the authorities, punctuality, regular attendance at study, school, church, and, in general, on the appointed exercises, due exertion, neatness in their habits, and exactness in the payment of dues to the tradesmen with whom they may deal. They bind themselves to serve for three years after leaving the school, in whatever situation may be assigned them by the regency of Merseburg, or to pay the cost of their education and maintenance. During their stay at the seminary, they are exempted from military service, except for six weeks. . . . ... The courses of instruction are, morals and religion, German, arithmetic and geometry, cosmology, pedagogy, terraculture, hygiene, theory and practice of music, drawing and writing. Cosmology is a comprehensive term for geography, an outline of history and biography, the elements of natural history and natural philosophy, all that relates to the world (earth) and its inhabitants. Pedagogy includes both the science and art of teaching. The courses just enumerated are divided among the masters, according to the supposed ability of each in the particular branches, the whole instruction being given by the four teachers. The director, as is customary in these schools, takes the religious instruction, and the science and art of teaching, as his especial province, and adds lectures on the theory of farming and gardening (terraculture), and of health. The duration of the course of studies has been reduced from three years to two, on account, it is alleged, of the necessity for a more abundant supply of teachers. There are, probably, other reasons, such as the expense, and the fear of over-educating the pupils for their station, which have been influential in bringing about this reduction. There are two classes corresponding to the two years of study. The first year is devoted entirely to receiving instruction; and in the second, practice in teaching is combined with it. In the preparatory school there is likewise a course of two years, and the pupils are divided into two classes. . . . ... 346. A French Normal School described (Bache, Alexander D., Report on Education in Europe, pp. 349-53. Philadelphia, 1839) The following description gives a good idea of a typical French normal school for the training of elementary teachers of the time (1837) of Guizot. The Primary Normal School of Versailles is for the Department of Seine and Oise. It comprises within its ample premises several estab |