HEBREWS. Pauline illustrations (see Notes on chaps. v. 12, 13; xii. 1-4) his choice of Old Testament passages. Under the last head may be specially mentioned the quotation of Ps. viii. (1 Cor. xv. 25-28) and Deut. xxxiii. 30 (Rom. xii. 19); see the Notes on chaps. ii. 6; x. 30. It is not necessary to go into further detail in proof of a position allowed by all, that (as has been already said), the Epistle, whether by St. Paul or not, is Paul-like in the general character of its teaching and in many of its special features. It is of much greater moment to examine those passages of the Epistle and those peculiarities of teaching or language which have been adduced as inconsistent with the Pauline authorship. Resemblance may be accounted for more readily than points of difference; for a disciple of St. Paul would hardly fail to exhibit many of the traits characteristic of such a master. Here, it will be seen, the distinction between style and subject matter must be carefully observed. If this Epistle could be proved to differ in diction only from the acknowledged writings of St. Paul, some theory of mediate authorship (similar to that mentioned by Origen) would be very possible; if the discordances lie deeper, no such theory can be maintained. When an argument must rest on characteristics of Greek diction and style, it is very probable that different conclusions may be reached by different readers. This question, again, cannot be examined here in any detail. The writer can only state the impression made upon his own mind by the original text, and especially by the careful study pursued for the purpose of this Commentary. From point to point the general likeness of the Epistle to St. Paul's writings came out more and more plainly; on the other hand arose a continually increasing wonder that the Greek sentences and periods should ever have been attributed to that Apostle's hand. We have before us Epistles belonging to every period during the last thirteen or fourteen years of St. Paul's life, written under widely different circumstances,-some during the enforced leisure of imprisonment, others amid active labour. We can trace differences of style resulting both from the time of writing and from the circumstances which called forth the Epistles; but these differences lie within a comparatively narrow compass. At whatever date St. Paul might be supposed to have written this Epistle, we can compare it with some other of his writings belonging nearly to the same period; and the differences of language and style presented by the two documents are, we are persuaded, far greater than those presented by the most dissimilar of the thirteen Epistles. Stress has been laid on the unique character of this Epistle, as the only one addressed to the Hebrews by the Apostle of the Gentiles; but it has been well asked why St. Paul should adopt a more finished Greek style in addressing Jews than when writing to the Greeks of Corinth. For ourselves we must express our decided conviction that, whatever may be the relation of the Epistle to St. Paul, the composition of the Greek was certainly not his. The remaining points of difference which (it is alleged) separate this Epistle from St. Paul's writ INTRODUCTION. ings, may be ranged under the covenant. If the writer has indeed following heads :-(1) statements of fallen into these mistakes, we fact which we cannot suppose to may safely say that he is not have proceeded from the Apostle; (2) divergence in doctrinal view; (3) peculiarities in the use of the Old Testament; (4) the use made of Alexandrian writers. (1) The most important passage is chap. ii. 3: "which (salvation) at the first began to be spoken by the Lord, and was confirmed unto us by them that heard." In these words the writer appears distinctly to sever himself from those who had directly received the word from the Lord. It is urged that he is here associating himself with his readers, as when in chap. iv. 1 he writes, "Let us therefore fear;" see also chaps. x. 24, 25, 26; xii. 1, et al. We will not venture to say that an Apostle could not have thus written; but, bearing in mind the necessity which lay upon St. Paul to defend his Apostolic position, and the claim which he consistently makes to have received his teaching by direct revelation (Gal. i. 1, 11, 12, et al.), we must hold it extremely improbable that he should use words that might even appear to represent him only as a disciple of the Apostles. On the other passages which have been brought into this controversy a very different judgment must be passed. It is alleged that in the description of the Temple furniture (chap. ix.) the writer falls into mistakes, asserting that the altar of incense (or, the golden censer) was placed in the Holy of Holies, that the ark contained the pot of manna and Aaron's rod, and that even in his own day the Most Holy Place into which the high priest entered year by year still contained the cherubim and the ark of the St. Paul. But, as the Notes on chap. ix. 2-6 will show, we hold that there is no real reason for impugning the accuracy of his words. No part of his description relates to the Temple services or furniture: he is occupied throughout with the injunctions of the Mosaic law and the arrangements of the Tabernacle. Even the association of the altar of incense with the Most Holy Place may be very easily explained. If the view we have taken is correct, this argument against the Pauline authorship must fall to the ground. It is not necessary therefore, to do more than mention the ingenious attempt of Wieseler to show that in the descriptions of chap. ix. the writer had in mind, not the Tabernacle or the Temple of Jerusalem, but the temple built by Onias at Leontopolis in Lower Egypt (about B.c. 170). (2) The alleged differences of doctrinal statement are of three kinds. Of St. Paul's favourite topics some are absent from this Epistle, some are treated in a different manner: and, again, certain themes here brought into prominence are not noticed in the Epistles of St. Paul. Thus we find only one passage in this Epistle in which the Resurrection of our Lord, ever a prominent topic with St. Paul, is mentioned (see chap. xiii. 20); the law, faith, righteousness, are looked at from a different point of view; the prominence here given to the Highpriesthood of Jesus is foreign to St. Paul's Epistles. It would require a volume duly to examine the various particulars adduced under this head; for the real question is not whether HEBREWS. the teaching is opposed to St. Paul's, but whether the various themes are treated in the manner characteristic of the Apostle. We do not believe that the most careful examination will detect any real discord between the dogmatic teaching of this Epistle and that of St. Paul; but the peculiarities of selection of topics and in mode of treatment are sufficient (even when all allowance has been made for the special position and aim of the Epistle) to suggest that, if St. Paul "laid the foundation," it is another who "buildeth thereon," "according to the grace of God which is given unto" him (1 Cor. iii. 10). The resemblances in teaching may show the presence of the Apostle, but the new colouring and arrangement prove that he is present only in the person of a disciple on whom his master's mantle has fallen, and who is taught by the same Spirit. (3) A similar conclusion is suggested by a review of the arguments that are founded on the difference in the use of the Old Testament. It need hardly be said that in the Epistle before us this subject is of the greatest consequence, for "the whole argument of the Epistle depends on the reality of the spiritual meaning of the Old Testament." But the essential principle involved is found as truly in St. Paul (see 1 Cor. x. ; 2 Cor. iii.; Gal. iv.; Eph. v., et al.). The New Testament is not divided against itself in its recognition of the Old. As has been truly said, "The authority of Christ Himself encourages us to search for a deep and spiritual meaning under the ordinary words of Scripture, which, however, can * Westcott, Introduction to the Gospels, p. 412. not be gained by any arbitrary allegorising, but only by following out patiently the course of God's dealings with man." But again when we come to details we find marks of divergence from St. Paul. In the Epistle to the Hebrews the word of Scripture is almost always quoted as the direct utterance of God ("He saith," "He hath said,") whereas St. Paul commonly uses the formula, "It is written,” or "The Scripture saith." The latter mode of introduction, which occurs about thirty times in the Pauline Epistles, is not once used in this; and, on the other hand, such examples as Eph. iv. 8 are very rare in St. Paul. The quotations in this Epistle, again, are commonly taken directly from the LXX., even when it differs from the Hebrew; and for the most part agree with that text which is preserved to us in the Alexandrian manuscript: St. Paul shows more acquaintance with the Hebrew. In each of these arguments (the former especially) there is force. The latter, however, has been pressed unduly; for an examination of the quotations as they stand in the best text of the Epistle, will show not a few departures from the Greek version, and there are not wanting tokens of the writer's acquaintance either with the Hebrew original or with a more accurate translation of some passages than the LXX. affords. (4) One distinguishing peculiarity of this Epistle is found in the many remarkable coincidences both of thought and of expression with the writings of Philo of Alexandria. One or two examples are quoted in the Notes; but nothing short of a collection of all the points of similarity, as presented in the Greek text, will show this characteristic INTRODUCTION. of the Epistle in its proper light. | many of the Greek ecclesiastical Both St. Paul and St. John exhibit writers) assign the Epistle to Baracquaintance with the Alexandrian nabas or Clement; in another he philosophy, but it has left comparatively slight traces in their writings. The resemblance in language in many passages of this Epistle is all the more remarkable because of the fundamental differences in doctrine between the Christian teacher and the Alexandrian philosopher. Another point of interest can only be briefly mentioned the many words and phrases common to this Epistle and the Book of Wisdom. The reader is referred to the remarkably interesting papers by Professor Plumptre in vol. i. of The Expositor, on "The Writings of Apollos." On a review of the whole case, there is only one conclusion that appears possible-that the Epistle was written by one who had stood in a close relation with St. Paul, but not by St. Paul himself. It will be readily understood that the arguments given above are not adduced as being of equal weight: some are only confirmatory, and might not have very much force if they stood alone; but all point with more or less distinctness to the conclusion which has been stated. Farther than this we cannot go with certainty; and it is perhaps the wisest to rest satisfied with this negative result. If we turn to the positive side, we have little to guide our judgment. Three names only seem to be mentioned by early writers-those of Barnabas, Clement of Rome, and St. Luke. The Epistle is quoted by Tertullian, as we have seen, as a work of Barnabas; and two later Latin writers, Philastrius and Jerome, mention the same tradition. In one passage Jerome says that very many (perhaps meaning mentions Tertullian alone as an authority for this, and seems to attach no special importance to the opinion. It would seem that the tradition was very limited; it is especially noteworthy that the name of Barnabas is not found in the passages quoted from Origen. We know too little of Barnabas to judge for ourselves of the intrinsic probability of the hypothesis: the so-called internal arguments which have been adduced by some are of no worth. The Epistle which bears the name of Barnabas belongs, in all probability, to the beginning of the second century, and has no connection with the companion of St. Paul. That Epistle, therefore (which presents a remarkable contrast to the teaching of the Epistle to the Hebrews; see Westcott On the Canon, pp. 43-45), yields no evidence in the present inquiry. In regard to Clement we can speak with more confidence, as we possess one Epistle which is certainly from his hand. That document contains passages belonging to our Epistle, but they are no doubt quotations from it, and the general style and character of Clement's Letter forbid us to ascribe the two works to the same writer. Much more favour has in recent times been shown to the other tradition which Origen records--that the Epistle was written by St. Luke. The resemblance of language between this Epistle and St. Luke's writings are numerous and striking; but with all this there is great dissimilarity of style. The difference between a Letter such as this and historical or biographical memoirs must indeed be taken into account; HEBREWS. but even when allowance has been made for this, it is difficult to receive the writer of the Acts as the author of our Epistle. Another consideration also is of weight. We can hardly doubt that we have before us here the work of a Jew; but St. Paul's words in Col. iv. 11, 14, imply that St. Luke was of Gentile birth. The subject is not one for confident assertion; but we strongly doubt whether the Epistle can be ascribed to any of those suggested by ancient writers. One other hypothesis must be mentioned, which has commanded the adhesion of many of the ablest writers of recent times. Luther was the first to express (in his Commentary on Genesis) an opinion that the Epistle to the Hebrews was the work of Apollos. Some will maintain that conjecture is inadmissible, but certainly all the conditions of the problem appear to be satisfied by this conjecture. The record of St. Luke in Acts xviii. 24-28, xix. 1, supplemented by St. Paul's references in 1 Corinthians, might seem to have been expressly designed to show the special fitness of Apollos for writing such an Epistle as this. Our limits will not allow us to enter into further detail, but the reader will find all the particulars admirably stated in the Notes on the verses in the Acts. If it be not unbecoming to go beyond the words of Origen on such a subject as this, and to favour an hypothesis for which no express evidence can be adduced from ancient times, we can have no hesitation in joining those who hold that it is the Jew of Alexandria, "mighty in the Scriptures," "fervent in spirit," the honoured associate of St. Paul, who here carries on the work which he began in Achaia, when "he mightily convinced the Jews, showing by the Scriptures that Jesus was Christ.” III. Readers.-The inquiry as to the original readers of the Epistle is even more difficult. It may be assumed with confidence that the present title of the Epistle is not that which it originally bore. There has sometimes been a disposition to deny the propriety of the name Epistle; and it has been thought that the peculiarity of the opening verses, containing, as they do, neither address nor author's name, may be most easily explained on the supposition that the work is a homily or general treatise. But a very slight examination will prove that such a theory has no foundation. The closing verses show that a particular community is directly addressed, a community well known to the writer, whose affection the writer knew himself to possess, though some individuals may have distrusted him and misjudged his acts and motives. He complains of their declension in Christian knowledge, and points out its cause (chap. v.); thankfully recognises their generous love to the brethren (chaps. vi. x.); and urges them to be true to their own past history (chap. x.). He cannot but have known that the trials and necessities of many other communities were very similar; but, like St. Paul, he addresses the wider only through the narrower circle. The immediate impulse was given by the news he had received respecting brethren for whom he himself had laboured, and over whose welfare he was bound diligently to watch. The Epistle needed no express inscription to make the first |