for his later life, since nominalists were the antipapal party. It appears possible that he lived at Paris for sixteen years, without other definite purpose than to teach and learn. His humanistic interests and his acquaintance with Cardinal Bessarion led him to Rome, where he was found about 1470. Thence he returned to Paris, where he influenced such men as Reuchlin and Agricola, and where he won the title of magister contradictionum by his questioning spirit. A more restful place was sought by him in Basel, and he declined an invitation from the bishop of Utrecht to go to that place. By Apr., 1479, he was back in his own home. He lived part of the time at the Clarissa cloister at Groningen, and part of the time with the Brethren at Agnetenberg near Zwolle.

He frequently visited the flourishing abbey of Adewert, and found a friend and protector in Bishop David of Utrecht. He was surrounded by a circle of admiring friends and pupils and enjoyed friendly intercourse with such older men as the abbot of Adewert, Heinrich von Rees, the philologist Rudolf van Langen, and Paulus Pelantius. He taught a religiously deepened and theologically directed Humanism. After a period of gloomy doubting that threatened to rob him of his entire faith, he was able before his death to say, "C I know nobody but Jesus crucified." He was buried in the church of the cloister at Groningen, where a memorial stone was laid in 1637, replaced by another between 1730 and 1742.

The extant literary productions of Wessel date from the last decade of his life. They are chiefly

short treatises in the form of apho2. Writings. risms arranged under special theological topics. His intercourse with the

"" religious" at Groningen and Zwolle led him to compose two books as guides in practical religion, neither of them published, however, before his death. The one dealt with prayer, the other was the Scala meditationis. After his death Cornelius Hoen (Honius) of The Hague industriously collected Wessel's manuscripts. What he found was sent to Luther and Zwingli, so that a collection of the tractlike treatises appeared with the title Farrago uberrima (Wittenberg, 1522 and 1523). The fact that few of Wessel's productions have come down may be explained by the remark of the book-dealer Adam Petri, that the mendicant monks acted with fiery zeal against Wessel's papers.

Wessel's basic religious principles are essentially those of Augustine, through whom he reached the

Platonic conclusion that God is Abso

3. Basal lute Being; he is the necessary existReligious ence, as opposed to the finite and inPrinciples. cidental. The end of man is to raise

himself to this stage of absolute being by complete self-surrender and self-denial. But such elevation above everything earthly is impossible without divine mediation. God has sent down the fulness of his being through the son, the virgin, and the angels, who act as intermediaries. Nature is the ordinary expression of the will of God, while miracle is the will of the same God expressed in what is unusual. As far as his relations to his immediate physical environments are concerned, man

is left to his own counsel, wherein his personality is recognized in its specific value as against absolute being. Man is essentially in the image of God, bearing the trinitarian characteristics of mind or memory, intelligence, and will. The original state of man was less perfect than that of the angels, since he was on a lower stage. Hence the image of God required purification and perfection through the angels. The mind is to be purified by wise knowl edge of God, intelligence is to be illumined by the sublime glorification of God, and the will is to be perfected through the blessed enjoyment of God. The Father works on the mind, the Word on the intelligence, and the Holy Spirit on the will. Evidently such a foundation, mingling together arbitrarily the metaphysical with the ethical, must have its effect upon the doctrine of sin. Sin is defined as an abiding below the ideal, remaining behind the goal of accomplishment. Distinction is made be tween sins of commission and omission, and the guilt which results from breach of the law which requires man to be perfect as God is perfect. Before the fall there were venal faults in a failure to attain the perfection required; in the fall there was additional the contempt of divine revelation. Wessel knew of a fall not only in the world of man but in that of angels: the former left an abiding degeneration; the latter had also its effects on man because of the intimate relations which existed be tween men and angels, the latter being mediaries, as stated above. The fallen angels also worked upon man, awakening self-love, in which original sin essentially consists. While man is not in a position alone to reach perfection, the conditions are always at hand for attainment of this, and Father, Son, and Holy Spirit cooperate to this end.

4. Christology.

In Wessel's Christology the idea of completeness is put in the foreground as against the idea of redemption and reconciliation. Since the creature from the beginning is in need of reconciliation with the absolute God, the incarnation was determined upon and prepared. That apart from the fall the Word would have become flesh is affirmed. Why God became man is answered by the statements that it was in order that the community of the triumphant Church might not be deprived of its head, that the building of the holy temple might have its corner stone, that all creation might have its mediator, and that the whole army and people of God might have its king. The fall from life in God could be remedied and a return effected only through the flesh raised above every creature [through the incarnation]. The human in Christ was only the shell which the divine rulership and completeness was to fill. Wessel, in following out such a train of thought as the foregoing, was not satisfied with merely theoretical consequences. The individual character of the incarnation lay in the fact that in the whole life and particularly in the death of Christ existed the exposition of the content of the eternal Word. Thus the human side was at the fore in Wessel's. Christology. The significance of the priesthood of Christ was also emphasized, and in this the self-emptying of the Word had its part in that as the sacrificial lamb the sufferings of Christ and his death were an

There is

equivalent which wrought satisfaction. not possible another victim for sin that is past, for when sin is remitted sin ceases; and when that takes place, righteousness begins. Wessel's doctrine of the saving value of Christ's death should not be confused with the theories of Anselm and Luther, although there are similarities of expression. The saving value of Christ's death consists in the absolute devotion of love which makes an immediate impression not only on sinners but upon all the imperfect, awakens love in them, draws them unto itself, and equips them with the Spirit, which in turn becomes a means of the full knowledge of God. There can be no doubt that Wessel derived the salvation of the individual from a divine and absolute act of grace. As Christ was the 5. Doctrine first predestined one, so were all the of Justifica- members of the congregation of Christ tion. predestined. Wessel follows the tradition of Augustine and of other theologians before the Reformation. Faith is a gift of God, inclining the mind to accept the truth of the Gospel, and faith directs itself to the crucified Christ. Wessel's conception of justification is the same as Augustine's, viz., an imparting of God's righteousness. Penitence is essentially contriteness of heart, a readiness to surrender self to the guidance of the divine revelation. It is a step in the process of the establishment of righteousness, and at a higher stage it becomes the right valuation of sin. In so far as penitence is pain, it is sorrow accompanying love because of inability to comprehend divine love in its full extent. The mystic love, which from the beginning operates in faith, can find satisfaction only in an ascetic liberation from the world. Victory over the world does not for Wessel mean the moral conquest and transformation of the world and of one's own life, but rather mystic indifference to the world as compared with knowledge and contemplation of God. In this regard Wessel lacked the true Reformation spirit. His significance for the Reformation of the sixteenth century lies chiefly in his criticism upon ecclesiastical life.

In the medieval view the Church was a kind of sanitarium able with its treasures of grace to pro

"the

vide for men eternal salvation. This 6. Doctrine view Wessel rejected, and regarded the of the Church as a communio to which all Church. belonged who were united to Christ in one faith, one hope, and one love. He did not stress, as did Augustine and his followers in the Middle Ages, the fact of predestination; he substituted for "the predestined" the phrase saints." The external unity of the Church under one pope was not essential but incidental. In expressing this opinion Wessel shook the cornerstone of the medieval ecclesiastical structure. Regarding the external form of the Church as a matter of indifference, Wessel saw no necessity for transforming it and thus his position remained essentially negative. Wessel denied to the Church all authority in matters of faith and all capacity to impart salvation with certainty. Neither the pope nor the Church is infallible. Many popes "committed pestilential errors." That Christians should submit blindly to the mandates of ecclesiastics is "irra

tional" and "full of blasphemy." Councils are not infallible organs of the Spirit, and their findings are subject to the judgment of the laity. Wessel anticipated the Reformation in that he based his position on the authority of Scripture, though he conceded a certain authority to the Church even when it did not fall in with the Spirit as operative in the Word. Alongside of the inner priesthood there is an external, sacramental priesthood. He grants the rights of papal jurisdiction and of legislation relating to the outer peace and safety of the Church; but this has the nature of a contract. A transgression of the common rights by the ecclesiastical authority might as in the case of civil superiors be met with deposition. Wessel refused any especial efficacy to the priesthood. The claim that salvation was dependent upon the sacraments and that the priests imparted the sacraments, was disposed of by discounting the value of the latter. That Wessel did not expressly dispute the seven sacraments was because he saw no particular significance in them. He did not regard baptism as having power to cleanse from sin, or participation in the communion as a means of receiving the Spirit. In the mass neither the "intention" of the celebrant nor the "6 judgment" of him for whom the mass was celebrated had any worth; everything depends upon the soul within, on love and internal character and longing, on spiritual hunger and thirst.

Wessel sharply criticized the medieval doctrine of Penance (q.v.). He was not able to see how there could be punishment after forgiveness; 7. Penance, imputation [of sin] comes to expression Confession, only in punishment, and when impuAbsolution. tation ceases, there can be no punishment. If God remits eternal punishment, why should he not remit the temporal also? It would be the greatest obstacle to piety if the pious had to carry constantly with them the thought of their own baseness. Corporal "contrition, affliction, chastisement, mortification," involved no more than a contrite body, not a contrite heart. The only real "satisfaction" (in the theological sense) is conversion. No duty can be imposed upon the converted other than that he sin no more, and that he love God with a pure affection. Similarly, confession is the consequence and not the condition of justification; it signifies hatred of sin. Indeed, it is better to praise God than to confess one's sins. Absolution is not within the power of the father confessor; it depends upon the inner disposition, which is unknown to the priest in the confessional. Absolution is an accompaniment, not the essence, of justification. It comes with the awakening of love. God alone can act upon the inner soul of man. Human efficacy, whether of priest or holy person, is excluded. The reception of the believer into the community of the saints is but the recognition of an already accomplished divine act. The activity of the priest in the sacrament is therefore merely ministerial. Penitence remains a purely ecclesiastical institution, and as such is not rejected by Wessel, but it is accompanied by abuses that must be opposed.

The most serious abuse associated with the Church's doctrine of penance was that of indul

gences. Wessel attacked this error from many sides. The pope had not the power to separate sin from punishment, the person from his acts. 8. Indul- There is to be no such distinction made gences and between temporal and eternal punPurgatory. ishments as was often made the basis

of an argument in favor of the indulgence. Indulgences, moreover, introduce contradiction into the necessary connection of sin and punishment. Besides this, the pope can not step in between man and God, nor has he power over the merits of Christ nor over the efficacy of the saints' intercession. Wessel declined also the current doctrine of purgatorial fire. He believed in the necessity of a continuous development of Christian life after death, and would not hear of rendering satisfaction for sins in purgatory. While the soul may in the future be purified of dross still clinging to it from its earthly existence, such a process must be spiritual and enjoyable rather than one producing misery. Entrance into "purgatory" must accordingly be one step in a process of betterment, it must lead to a state of being superior to the first state of Adam, since the possibility of temptation is excluded. If there be " pain " in purgatory, that pain is sorrow rather than suffering sorrow caused by the sense of unworthiness. It is the purifying pain of love of Christ.

While Wessel has been perhaps too enthusiastically praised by Ullmann (see bibliography) as a "Reformer before the Reformation," it is equally a mistake to consider him an orthodox churchman. That he foreshadowed the German Reformation is evinced by his teachings as set forth above. Yet in many respects Wessel's face was turned backward toward Augustine and Bernard.

(S. D. VAN VEEN.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: The only edition of the Opera was published at Groningen, 1614, reprint, Amsterdam, 1617. The earliest "Life was by A. Hardenberg (A. Rizæus) and was prefixed to the Opera, ut sup. Consult further: H. von der Hardt, Memoria Chrysolora, Byzantini, Helmstadt, 1718; J. Wessel, G. H. Goetzi . commentationem de Joanne Wesselo tuebitur, Lübeck, 1719; J. M. Schroeckh, Christliche Kirchengeschichte, xxxiii. 278295, 45 vols., Leipsic, 1768-1812; W. Muurling, Commentatio... de Wesseli Gansfortii cum vita, Utrecht, 1831; idem, Oratio de Wesseli. principiis atque virtutibus, Groningen, 1840; B. Bähring, Leben Johann Wessels, 2d ed., Bielefeld, 1852; O. Jaeger, J. Wycliffe und seine Bedeutung für die Reformation, Halle, 1854; J. Friedrich, Johann Wessel, Regensburg, 1862; J. J. Doedes, in TSK, 1870; P. Hoffstede de Groot, Johan Wessel Ganzevoort, Groningen, 1871; C. Ullmann, Reformers before the Reformation, ii. 263–615 (a critical account of the literature, pp. 610-615, which the earnest student should not overlook), Edinburgh, 1877, cf. his Johann Wessel, ein Vorgänger Luthers, Hamburg, 1834; S. Kettlewell, Thomas à Kempis, and the Brothers of Common Life, 2 vols., London, 1882, 2d ed., abridged, chap. xiv., ib. 1885; Bayle, Dictionary, v. 543–547.

WESSENBERG, ves'sen-barg, IGNAZ HEINRICH KARL VON: Liberal Roman Catholic; b. at Dresden Nov. 4, 1774; d. at Constance Aug. 6, 1860. He began his education in the Institut St. Salvator at Augsburg, then changed to Dillingen (where Johann Michael Sailer, q.v., was teaching), and then to the University of Würzburg, where he became acquainted with Karl Theodor von Dalberg, who was greatly to influence his life; he next attended the University of Vienna, spending the most

of his energies, however, in the library and in making the acquaintance of a circle of men highly placed in political position. In 1798 he went to Constance, where he had a prebend in the cathedral, pursuing, meanwhile, his studies in history and canon law. Here a poetical letter, Ueber den Verfall der Sitten in Deutschland (Zurich, 1799), indicated the general bent of his thought. He held a high ecclesiastical position next in Augsburg; by this time Dalberg was bishop of Constance, and he invited Wessenberg to his diocese as vicar-general. In this position he worked so effectively that he soon gained papal approval in a special brief. He sought to make conditions there higher and more ethical, worked for the foundation of seminaries for the priesthood, inaugurated ministerial conferences, attempted to improve the sermon and catechetical exercises, and aroused by these measures great hostility and caused complaint to Rome. On the death of Dalberg he was nominated as administrator of the diocese, but the false assertion that he denied the deity of Christ and other complaints caused the Curia to reject the nomination. At Rome the refused him audience, and his general reception was unfavorable. In 1827 he laid down his office and retired to private life at Constance, though he served in the Baden house of representatives and was honored by high and low.

pope

Two leading ideas controlled Wessenberg's life: he desired to see a national German Catholic Church and the revival of councils, and these purposes gained for him the enmity of the Curia. He regarded the Gallican Church with its four articles of 1682 as an excellent model; and toward a church of this pattern in Germany he labored at the congress at Vienna in 1814, using his influence and his penDie deutsche Kirche, ein Vorschlag zu ihrer neuen Begründung und Einrichtung (1815)—but in vain. In his ecclesiastical and theological thinking he was midway between Sailer and Benedikt Maria Werkmeister (q.v.), excelling both in political insight and energy. He was especially anxious to see a return to the conditions of primitive Christianity. In his major work, Die grossen Kirchenversammlungen des 15. und 16. Jahrhunderts (4 vols., 1840), in spite of the mass of materials which he had read, there fail the notes of solid learning and scientific method. His brochures on practical theology display little depth of acuteness. So his Gott und die Welt, oder das Verhältnis der Dinge zueinander und zu Gott (2 vols., 1857) does not transcend the limits of a popularly philosophical presentation. He also was known as a poet (Sämtliche Dichtungen, 7 vols., Stuttgart and Tübingen, 1834-54). Other works were: Betrachtungen über die Verhältnisse der katho lischen Kirche in Umfange des deutschen Bundes (1816); Die christlichen Bilder (1826-27); and Ueber Schwärmerei (1832). Where he shines is as a Christian character, to which were added the graces of a noble culture. These worked out into a liberal, patriotic, and broad Catholicism, which was, how ever, denied its fruition through the entrance into his region of a Jesuitical and Romanizing Catholicism. (K. BENRATH.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sketches of the life have been issued by J. Beck, Freiburg, 1862; Kreuz, St. Gall, 1863; Friedrich, in F. von Weech, Badische Biographien, vol. ii., Darm

stadt, 1875; and in ADB, xlii. 147-157. Consult further: Das Leben I. H. von Wessenbergs, ehemaligen Bisthumsverwesers in Constanz, Freiburg, 1860; O. Mejer, Zur Geschichte der römisch-deutschen Frage, vol. i. passim, ii. 1, pp. 54-86, iii. 271 sqq., Rostock, 1871-74; E. Friedberg, Der Staat und die Bischofswahlen in Deutschland, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1874; J. Friedrich, Geschichte des vatikanischen Konzils, i. 179 sqq., Bonn, 1877; F. Nippold, Handbuch der neuesten Kirchengeschichte, i. 523–531, ii. 543– 546, Berlin, 1901.

WESSOBRUNN, ves′sõ-brun, PRAYER: A poem, followed by a prose prayer, found at the end of the second part of a manuscript collection, entitled De poeta, derived from the cloister of Wessobrunn, south of Munich. It is probably of Bavarian origin, and

Geography (8 1).

History and Population (§ 2).
The Spanish Period (§ 3).
Non-Roman Missions (8 4).
Moravians (§ 5).

English Wesleyans (§ 6).

1. Geography.

was to all appearances composed in the eighth century. Possibly dependent upon Ps. lxxxix. 2, it pictures in nine alliterative lines the original chaos when only God and his angels existed. The first five lines have been incorrectly supposed to represent heathen cosmological conceptions, but there is no valid reason for disputing the unity and Christian origin of the entire poem. (E. STEINMEYER.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: The text is in K. Müllenhoff and W. Scherer, Denkmäler deutscher Poesie und Prosa, vol. i., 3d ed., Berlin, 1892 (there are also to be found titles of earlier literature on the subject). Consult further: J. N. Kelle, Geschichte der deutschen Litteratur, i. 74 sqq., Berlin, 1892; R. Kögel, Geschichte der deutschen Litteratur, i. I, pp. 269 sqq. et passim, Strasburg, 1894.

The West Indies constitute an archipelago extending in an eastward curve from North to South America, and separating the Caribbean Sea from the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. The principal groups from north to south are: (1) The Bahamas, consisting of some thirteen low islands with many keys and reefs; area, 5,450 sq. m.; population, 53,735; Nassau is the capital and chief port. (2) The Greater Antilles, which include Cuba, the largest of the West Indies, with an area of 44,164 sq. m.; population, 1,820,239, most of whom are white; Havana is the capital, and the commercial center of all the islands. Haiti, the next island, has a total area of 28,250 sq. m., and is divided into the two Republics of Haiti; area, 10,205 sq. m.; population, 960,000, nine-tenths of whom are negroes-and Santo Domingo; area, 18,045 sq. m.; population, 610,000, a mixed race descended from the aborigines and their Spanish conquerors. West of Haiti lies Jamaica, which, including its dependent islands, has an area of 4,424 sq. m., and a population of 716,394, a mixture of whites, blacks, and half-breeds; Kingston is the capital and leading city. (3) The Lesser Antilles, properly including two groups: the Caribbean and Venezuelan, or Windward and Leeward, Islands, of which the largest and best-known are the French island of Martinique, the British island of Barbadoes, and, in the extreme south, Trinidad.

The islands were discovered in 1492 and succeeding years by Columbus in his voyages to the New World. The Spanish first settled at Haiti, and later at Cuba, Porto Rico, and Jamaica, treating the natives with such cruelty that by the middle of the eighteenth century they were practically exterminated, and negro slaves were imported to work on the plantations. During the seventeenth century

the Spanish were followed by the 2. History French, English, and Dutch, who setand tled in the Bahamas and the CaribPopulation. bean Islands. Little by little the islands were. wrested from their first conquerors, and the opening of the twentieth century sees Cuba an independent republic, under the

American Baptists and Other Protes-
tant Organizations (§ 11).
General Present Conditions (§ 12).
Cuba (§ 13).

Porto Rico (§ 14).
Statistical Summary (§ 15).

protection of the United States; Haiti and Santo Domingo, independent republics; Porto Rico, a part of the United States; the Bahamas and Jamaica, crown colonies of Great Britain; and the remaining islands divided among Great Britain, France, Denmark, Holland, Sweden, and Venezuela. Among the population, the larger portion of whom are illiterate, only a remnant of the original inhabitants remain. It is estimated that fully 60 per cent of the entire population are mulattoes; in Cuba and Porto Rico the white race predominates, but in the other islands the colored race is in the majority, and in all there is a sprinkling of Chinese and Hindus. In Cuba, Porto Rico, and Santo Domingo, Spanish is the prevailing language; in Haiti it is French; in the British islands a Negro-English patois is spoken; the southern islands use a conglomerate of Dutch and Spanish, and in all fragments of aboriginal dialects are to be found; Roman Catholicism is the dominant religion.

In the journal of his first voyage Columbus states that, “In all those islands there is no difference of physiognomy, of manners, or of language, but they all clearly understand each other-a circumstance very propitious for the realization of what I conceive to be the principal wish of our Most Serene King, namely, the conversion of these people to the Holy Faith of Christ." In his will he desired his heirs to spare no pains to put in this island of Española four good professors of theology to convert to our Holy Faith the inhabitants of the Indies." Side by side with the passion for conquest in material things was that of spiritual conquest in the minds of these early Spanish explorers, and coversion, by any means, was the order. Conquest was first; lands were seized, and natives were enslaved; after that came the proselytizing. One of the first missionaries was Bartolomé de Las Casas (q.v.), who came to Cuba in 1502 and began a heroic struggle, not only with the heathenism of the islanders, but with the rapacity of their conquerors, and in this he had many associates of the Dominican order, though their efforts were of little avail to stem the tide. After the death of Las Casas, who was rightly called the "Apostle to the West Indies,"

Spanish Period.

conditions rapidly became worse. Still, some efforts were made to improve the condition of the natives, and in 1556 the Jesuits established a 3. The mission at Havana, which was continued for six years, though with indifferent success; and at last they, too, were driven out by the determined opposition of the planters. During these and ensuing years the history of the West Indies is a dark record of slavery, piracy, and cruelty. The Church and the State were one, and the former had to bear the blame for both. No faith but Roman Catholicism was allowed, and the inquisition was introduced to extirpate heresy. The native population rapidly disappeared, and Africans, Chinese, and Hindus were either captured or lured into slavery to take their place. Nor was the pall lifted with the coming of the other Christian nations. England made penal colonies of her islands, and in the early days of her occupation "Barbadoed " became a significant term in London, for men and women, as well as boys and girls, were kidnaped and shipped to the islands; and all, Spanish, French, Dutch, and English, vied with each other in lust of land, slaves, and gold.

The English conquest of 1661 was followed by the entrance of the Church of England in 1662, but in its early history in the West Indies it did no missionary work, the clergymen devoting themselves wholly to the English residents in the islands. In 1703 the Society for the Propagation of the 4. Non- Gospel began to render aid with books Roman and money, but the first organized Missions. Protestant missionary effort in the

islands was that of the Unity of the Brethren, or Moravians, in 1732. The Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society of England followed in 1786; the Baptist Missionary Society of England and the Church Missionary Society in 1814; the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in 1818; the Scottish Missionary Society in 1824; the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland and the London Missionary Society in 1835; the American Missionary Association in 1847; the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1865; and the Southern Baptist Convention in 1886; while during all these years the Roman Catholic orders, including the Dominicans and Jesuits, have been more or less actively working.

The first Moravian missionaries to the West Indies were two artizans, Leonard Dober, a potter, and David Nitschmann (q.v.), a carpenter, who, while with Zinzendorf at Herrnhut, had met a negro slave, named Anthony, from St. Thomas, and had been profoundly impressed with the great need of the natives in that island for the Gospel. Amid great difficulties they made their way to the West Indies in 1732, ready themselves to become slaves, if need be, in their enthusiasm to help the oppressed. They were followed the next year by twenty-nine others, many of whom succumbed to the cli

5. Mora- mate, while the planters opposed them vians. on every hand. Nevertheless, a few slaves were baptized, and through one of them a great awakening spread over the entire island of St. Thomas. The planters became more

bitter in their opposition, punishing slaves who at tended service and increasingly persecuting the missionaries, till, when Zinzendorf visited the island in 1739, he found several of them in prison, under charge of being dangerous agitators. He secure their release, but laws were passed forbidding work among the slaves, and the banishment of the mis sionaries was attempted. Yet some few of the planters became friendly, and by their changed atti tude greatly helped the work. In 1733 St. Croix was occupied, and subsequently became the principal station of the Moravians in the Danish Islands; the work was pushed as rapidly as possible to other islands, and St. John was occupied in 1741, Jamaica in 1754, Antigua in 1756, Barbadoes in 1767, St. Kitts in 1777, and Tobago in 1787. In the cente nary jubilee of 1832, a total of 37,000 persons who had received baptism was reported. The West Indies Mission of the Moravians, with its 40,000 Christians, is becoming an independent Church province. It receives little outside financial sup port, schools have native teachers, and many of the churches possess native pastors, but the supervision of the work is still in the hands of the European missionaries.

There were in 1911 59 churches, with 16,363 communicants; 51 stations; 39 substations; 50 missionaries; and 854 native helpers.

After the Moravians, the English Wesleyans were the next to enter the field. A Mr. Gilbert, Speaker of the House of Assembly at Antigua, while on a visit in England, heard Wesley preach and was cor verted. He returned to Antigua in 1760, and at once began work among his slaves, some 200 of whom were converted. After his death the work was continued by two slave women until the arrival of John Baxter, a Christian shipwright, who cor tinued the work alone for eight years, laboring in the dockyards for his support. About 2,000 slave had become Christians, when, in 1786, Thoma Coke (q.v.), on his way to Nova Scotia with three missionaries, was driven by storm to 6. English Antigua, where he remained about Wesleyans. six weeks, visiting several islands and locating missionaries in the new sta tions. The planters opposed the Wesleyans as bit terly as they did the Moravians, and in 1792 a lav was passed prohibiting all but rectors of parishes to preach without a license, which no one who had not resided for twelve months on the island could re ceive; for the first infringement of this law, the punishment was fine or imprisonment; for the se ond, corporal punishment and banishment; if ba ished, the penalty for return was death. This la was in force but a short time when it was abrogatal by the king, as contrary to the British Constitution and in 1794 the missionaries again resumed work, the negroes responding joyously. By 1813 over 11,000 Christians were found in the Wesleyan missions alone. In 1820 the entire West Indies field was di vided into four districts: Antigua, St. Vincent, Jamaica, and the Bahamas, and the work every where progressed rapidly, though not without of position. The influx of immigrants had an unfavor able effect, those from Africa especially tending to demoralize the people by their heathen proclivities

while new difficulties were experienced through the necessity of learning the languages of the Hindu coolies, this problem being met in part by the coming in 1852 of a missionary who understood the Tamil language, to work specially among them. The emancipation of all slaves in the British Islands in 1834, which was completed in 1838, was followed by a similar proclamation in the Danish possessions in 1848, and many important changes followed. Education now flourished, the governments made grants in aid of land to the missions, and for a time it seemed as if the work of evangelization was to be speedily accomplished. But with their freedom the former slaves deteriorated, and many returned to heathen practises, while the terrible Obi superstition held not a few in its grip, and the lack of moral fiber added to the difficulties of building up a Christian civilization. By the middle of the nineteenth century (1850), the Wesleyan Methodist Mission had 4 circuits with 52 stations and about 400 preaching-places; 79 missionaries and assistants; 146 native helpers; 48,589 church-members; and 259 Sunday- and day-schools, with 18,247 scholars. In spite of opposition from the planters, and notwithstanding the superstition of the natives, the work increased from decade to decade, and, with the exception of the Bahamas District, the West Indies are now an independent church province, being no longer classed as a mission field.

The Baptist Missionary Society of England began work in Jamaica in 1813, building on the foundations laid by a negro from Virginia, who had labored in Kingston since 1783. After his death the work was continued by one of his followers, and he ap

plied to the Baptist Missionary Society 7. English for aid. By the advice of William WilBaptists. berforce (q.v.), missionaries were sent out in 1813; chapels were built and schools established; more missionaries were sent out; and by 1831 there were 14 English missionaries in charge of 24 churches and 10,000 communicants. This year the slaves rebelled against their masters, and missionaries were charged with having instigated the insurrection. They were arrested and their lives were threatened, but when brought to trial they were acquitted. Many of their chapels and schools had been destroyed, however, and two of their number, Knibb and Burchell, were sent to England, not only to ask for assistance, but to enter a vigorous protest against the traffic in slaves. Their mission was successful, the government indemnified the mission for the property which had been destroyed, and the abolition of the slave-trade in their possessions immediately followed. The work was resumed and greatly prospered, so that in 1842 the Jamaica Baptist Missionary Union was formed, including 132 almost entirely self-supporting churches. Other stations were occupied, missionaries were sent to Trinidad, the Turk Islands, Santo Domingo, and the Bahamas, and here also the people contributed largely to their own support. The society gradually discontinued its workers, so that by 1900 of the ten English missionaries on the field, all but two were independent of its aid. At this time there were 286 stations and substations, some 600 native helpers, 186 churches, and 38,341 communicants.

The Church Missionary Society of England entered the field in 1814, beginning work on Antigua,

and opening stations on Jamaica in 8. Church 1826, and on Trinidad in 1836. When, of England. however, the Colonial State Church was organized in 1839, the C. M. S. withdrew from the field. Early in the eighteenth century, General Christopher Codrington bequeathed two estates to the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, to provide instruction for the negroes in the Barbadoes and other Caribbean Islands, with the stipulation that an institution be maintained where the "students shall be obliged to study and practice Phisick and Chirurgery as well as Divinity, that by the apparent usefulness of the former to all mankind they may do good to men's souls while taking care of their bodies." The college was formally opened in 1745, and the S. P. G. still administers the trust by which it is supported. In 1818 the society sent missionaries to the Barbadoes, and gradually extended its work to the other islands, but it also withdrew from the field in 1839, only continuing its trust of Codrington College.

The Scottish Missionary Society began a work at Jamaica in 1824, which was rapidly pushed to other islands. In 1835 the first missionaries of the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland were sent out, and Trinidad was occupied; while in the following year the two societies united in forming the Jamaica Presbytery. Three new stations were occupied 1837-40, and the work greatly prospered, until, in 1847, the Scottish Society gave the 9. Scotch work over entirely to the United PresPresby- byterian Church. During the next terians and decade the ill-health of the missionEnglish aries and an epidemic of cholera among Congrega- the people caused a time of deep distionalists. tress and slow progress, but in 1861 a revival brought renewed interest and a great accession to the membership of the church. A seminary was established, with a department for training a native ministry which sends out capable colored pastors. Since 1900 the work has been carried on by the Committee of the United Free Church of Scotland, and at that time there were 60 churches in Jamaica and Trinidad, with a membership of 21,500, while the work was largely self-supporting. In 1835 the desire of the emancipated slaves for teachers led the London Missionary Society to send missionaries to Jamaica, in connection with their mission in British Guiana. In 1839 the West India Missionary Committee, consisting of residents of New England and New York, was formed to receive and forward contributions for the support of these missionaries; in 1843 the Jamaica Congregational Association was organized as a local missionary agency, though in 1847 the work passed into the care of the American Missionary Association. By 1867 the churches became self-supporting, and in 1876 the Congregational Association of Jamaica assumed full control.

In 1861 James Theodore Holly (q.v.) obtained permission from the Missionary Committee of the Protestant Episcopal Church to go to Haiti with a missionary colony; and he there established a work which, in 1865, was taken under the control

of the American Church Missionary Society. The missionaries were greatly hampered by war and pestilence, but nevertheless were so 10. Protes successful that in less than a decade tant Epis- the Church in Haiti was recognized by copalians. the General Convention, and Holly was consecrated its first bishop. In 1883 the work practically became independent, though receiving some financial aid as one of the churches in communion with the Protestant Episcopal Church. In 1911 there were 11 priests, 2 deacons, 13 lay readers, 21 missions, 753 communicants, 189 day-school pupils, 358 Sundayschool pupils, contributions $2,076.

After the Cuban rebellion of 1880, Captain Diaz of the insurrectos fled to New York to escape the Spanish forces. While there he was converted, and, after some time spent in study, returned to Cuba to preach the gospel to his fellow countrymen. He persevered amid great persecution, but II. Amer- in 1885 the Southern Baptist Convenican Bap- tion went to his assistance, he was ortists and dained, and the following year the other first Protestant church was organized Protestant in Havana. During the next two years Organiza- over 1,000 people were baptized; nine tions. native pastors were at work; and dayand Sunday-schools were established. Other churches were organized in various parts of the island, and seventeen preaching-stations were maintained. Over 800 persons applied for baptism in one year, but most of them were totally ignorant as to the meaning of the rite. Over 2,000 children were in the Sunday-school in Havana alone, and from 150 to 200 in each of the other churches. The work of Diaz is conspicuous in that it was the only organized Protestant work in Cuba previous to the Spanish-American War. Other organizations working in the remaining islands of the group to a greater or less extent were the Danske Evangelisk-Lutherske Statskirke (1665); the African Methodist Episcopal Church (1824); the United Methodist Free Churches of England (1838); the Presbyterian Church of Canada (1869); the American Baptist Missionary Union (1870); the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, and the Presbyterian Church in the U. S. A. (1872); the Methodist Episcopal Church (1873); the Presbyterian Church in the U. S. (1874); the Christian Woman's Board of Missions (1876); the American Friends Board of Foreign Missions (1883); the Seventh Day Adventists (1890); the Christian and Missionary Alliance (1891); and the National Baptist Convention (1893).

Up to the time of the Spanish-American War (1898-99), Protestant missionary operations in the West Indies had been confined largely to the Bermudas, Haiti, Jamaica, and the Lesser Antilles; Cuba and Porto Rico being Spanish possessions which missionaries were forbidden to 12. General enter. As a result of the labors of the Present various organizations, the Bermudas Conditions. and the Lesser Antilles may be considered Christianized, though many of the people are weak and ignorant, and there is much room for future development on every line. Haiti

and Santo Domingo are outwardly Roman Catholic, but underneath the form of religion is a current d superstition, and African fetishism still holds mang in its thrall. Jamaica is perhaps the most the oughly Christian of any island in the group, owing to the dominance of England and the natural pos sibilities of the island. While none of these island are now properly considered as mission fields, then is large opportunity for building up the weak church-members into strong Christian communi ties, and this is the present work which ǹ engaging the missionary organizations of the varion churches.

During the years that the missionaries were slow. ly working a transformation in these islands, Cuba and Porto Rico were debarred from all progress by the policy of Spain, even the priesthood being agains civic reform and freedom of religious worship. The political rulers were in the islands solely for gain and the religious leaders as a class were ignorant avaricious, and indifferent to their holy offic Cathedrals were built, and there was a form of

ligion; all ecclesiastical functions wer 13. Cuba. punctiliously performed; but pra tically nothing was done, during the four centuries of Spanish dominion, for the betta ment of the people. In 1790 there were but t schools, outside Havana, in the entire island d Cuba, as the archbishop refused to sanction mor on the ground that popular education was unneces sary. In Porto Rico there was a system of edues tion in the cities, but there were few schools of any kind in the rural districts, and fully 87 per cent d the people could neither read nor write. The peopl rose repeatedly against their conquerors, only to b the more oppressed. Promises of reforms and fre dom were made only to be broken, and at last the long history of misgovernment culminated in the revolution of 1895, when a four-years' struggle sued. The conflict was terminated only by the i tervention of the United States, which sent an arm to Cuba, the result being the withdrawal of Spain from the group, and ultimately the annexation « Porto Rico to the United States and the formation of the Republic of Cuba under the protection of the United States. In 1900 the Constitution of this new republic guaranteed that "All religious be liefs, as well as the practise of all forms of religio are free, without further restriction than that de manded by respect for Christian morality and pub lic order." As soon as this clause became effectiv the field was occupied by various American mis sionary organizations. The Southern Baptist Co vention had been working in Cuba since 1886, bu the missionaries were forced from the field by th war, and at its close they found themselves with o nominal church, of "forty scattered and unfindahk members." Work was reopened with new vigo and so prospered that it is said that over one-thi of all the Protestants on the island belong to this or church. There are (1911) 2 missionaries, 26 pastor and helpers, 2 stations, 41 substations, and " churches, with 1,078 communicants. Other societie which have entered Cuba since 1898 are the Meth odist Episcopal Church, South; the American B tist Home Missionary Society; the Congregation

Home Missionary Society; the Presbyterian Church in the U. S. A.; the Foreign Christian Missionary Society; the Presbyterian Church, South; the Protestant Episcopal Church; the Seventh Day Adventists; and the Universalist Church.

In Porto Rico the Protestant Episcopal Church was already in the field, with a small chapel for the English-speaking residents, and they at once extended their work to reach the other races also. Other organizations are the American Missionary Association; the American Baptist Home Missionary Society; the Presbyterian Church in the U. S.A.; the United Brethren; the General 14. Porto Council of the Evangelical Lutheran Rico. Church; the Methodist Episcopal Church; the Christian Woman's Board of Missions; the Seventh Day Adventists; and the Christian and Missionary Alliance. As the work developed, some plan of cooperation became necessary, and in 1902 representatives of the various missionary organizations met at Cienfuegos in Cuba to consider the question of comity. The Episcopal Church had already made the island a missionary diocese with a resident bishop, but the other communions decided that cities of 6,000 or more inhabitants should be open to all, while the rest of the island was divided among them, each denomination to care for a certain district, so that there should be no overlapping or friction, and give the best result. This division of the field had already been made in Porto Rico, and in both islands there was the most cordial cooperation among the various religious bodies at work. Centuries of Roman Catholic teaching made the task of the Protestant missionaries most difficult. The work was begun vigorously, however, largely along evangelistic lines, though educational and theological institutions for the training of leaders for the churches were at once planned. The multiplication of schools under government and independent auspices; the establishment of hospitals and dispensaries; and, above all, the services of the Christian minister, freely given, not only in solemnizing marriages and in the other sacraments of the Church, but in all lines of Christian activities, are slowly solving the problems of these islands. One happy result of the work of the Protestant missionaries has been to arouse the Roman Catholics to greater activity and new methods, and the once dormant though dominant church is establishing schools and colleges, and doing its share in the uplift of the people.

Bahama Islands: 7 societies; 37 missionaries; 266 helpers and pastors; 10 stations; 134 substations; 2 churches; 19,182 communicants; contributions, $4,622.

Cuba: 16 societies; 142 missionaries; 137 helpers and pastors; 50 stations; 176 substations; 118 churches; 9,173 communicants; con15. Statis- tributions, $22,485. tical

Porto Rico: 15 societies; 167 misSummary. sionaries; 200 helpers and pastors; 52 stations; 274 substations; 120 churches, and 9,692 communicants; contributions, $3,777.

Haiti and Santo Domingo: 9 societies; 17 missionaries; 139 helpers and pastors; 21 stations; 41

substations; 4 churches; 2,706 communicants; contributions, $1,635.

Jamaica: 18 societies; 257 missionaries; 1,852 helpers and pastors; 277 stations; 426 substations; 384 churches; 138,333 communicants; contributions, $174,057.

Lesser Antilles: 14 societies; 186 missionaries; 977 helpers and pastors; 54 stations; 189 substations; 104 churches; 80,787 communicants; contributions, $79,193.

Total for the group: 806 missionaries; 3,571 helpers and pastors; 464 stations; 1,240 substations; 732 churches; 259,873 communicants; contributions, $285,769.

THEODORA CROSBY BLISS. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Works of a general nature are: J. de Acosta, Natural and Moral Hist. of the West Indies, London, 1880; C. H. Eden, The West Indies, ib. 1881; W. Moister, The West Indies, Enslaved and Free, ib. 1883; J. A. Froude, The English in the West Indies, ib. 1888; C. E. Taylor, Leaflets from the Danish West Indies, ib. 1888; A. M. Kollewijn, Geschiedenis van Nederlandsch West-Indië, Amersfoot, 1887; 0. T. Bulkeley, The Lesser Antilles, London, 1889; C. W. Eves, The West Indies, ib. 1889; H. V. P. Bronkhurst, Geography of the West India Islands, Demerara, 1890; L. Hearn, Two Years in the French West Indies, London, 1890; C. P. Lucas, Historical Geography of the British Colonies, vol. ii., The West Indies, Oxford, 1894; J. Rodway, The West Indies, New York, 1896; L. Peytrand, L'Esclavage aux Antilles françaises avant 1789. Paris, 1897; R. T. Hill, Cuba and Porto Rico, with the other Islands of the West Indies, New York, 1898; L. Lloréns Torres, América. Estudios históricos y filológicos, Madrid, 1898; A. K. Fiske, The West Indies: a Hist. of the Islands of the West Indian Archipelago, New York, 1899; M. Halstead, Hist. of American Expansion and the Story of our new Possessions, ib. 1899; M. A. Hamm, Porto Rico and the West Indies, London, 1899; C. S. Walton, The Civil Law in Spain and Spanish-America including Puerto Rico, Washington, D. C., 1900; A List of Books on the Danish West Indies, Congress Library, Washington, D. C., 1901; J. de Dampierre, Essai sur les sources de l'histoire des Antilles françaises, 1492–1664, Paris, 1904; F. Dodsworth, The Book of the West Indies, London, 1904; H. H. van Kol, Naar de Antillen en Venezuela, Leyden, 1904; F. A. Ober, Our West Indian Neighbors, New York, 1904; idem, Guide to the West Indies, ib. 1908; G. Weggener, Reisen im Westindischen Mittelmeer, Berlin, 1904; J. Henderson, The West Indies, London, 1905, new ed., New York, 1909.

On separate parts of the West Indies: J. H. Stark, Hist, and Guide to the Bahama Islands, Boston, 1891; G. Lester, In Sunny Isles: Chapters treating chiefly of the Bahama Islands, London, 1897; The Bahama Islands, ed. G. B. Shattuck, New York, 1905; N. D. Davis, Cavaliers and Roundheads in Barbadoes, ib 1888; J. Y. Edghill, About Barbados, London, 1890; J. H. Stark, Hist. and Guide to Barbados, Boston, 1893; A. Bachiller y Morales, Cuba: Monografia historica, Havana, 1883; F. Vidal y Careta, Estudio de las razas humanas que han ido poblando sucesivamente la Isla de Cuba, Madrid, 1897; I. E. Canini, Four Centuries of Spanish Rule in Cuba, Chicago, 1898; R. Davey, Cuba, Past and Present, London, 1898; F. Matthews, The New-born Cuba, New York, 1899; E. Aubert, Les nouvelles Ameriques. Cuba, etc., Paris, 1901; H. Gannett, A Gazetteer of Cuba, Washington, D. C., 1902; H. H. S. Aimes, Hist. of Slavery in Cuba, 1511-1868, New York, 1907; I. A. Wright, Cuba, ib. 1910; Sir S. St. John, Hayti or the Black Republic, London, 1889; E. M. Bacon and E. M. Aaron, The New Jamaica, New York, 1890; F. Cundall, Bibliotheca Jamaicensis, ib. 1895; J. H. Stark, Jamaica Guide, Boston, 1898; B. P. Burry, Jamaica as it is, 1903, London, 1903; F. Dodsworth, The Book of Jamaica, Kingston, 1904; W. J. Gardner, Hist. of Jamaica, new ed., New York, 1909; A. D. Hall, Porto Rico, New York, 1898; A. G. Robinson, Porto Rico of To-day, ib. 1899; R. A. van Middeldyk, The History of Puerto Rico, ib. 1903; S. Brau, Historia de Puerto Rico, ib. 1904; L. S. Rowe, The United States and Porto Rico, ib. 1904; S. Hazard, Santo Domingo, Past and Present, London, 1873; D.

Hort, Trinidad, Historical and Statistical, ib. 1865; J. A, de Suze, Geography of Trinidad and Tobago, Trinidad, 1894. Specifically on the religious side are: H. B. Foster, Wesleyan-Methodism in Jamaica, London, 1881; W. Carlile, Thirty-eight Years' Mission Life in Jamaica, ib. 1884; E. Nuttall, The Churchman's Manual, Jamaica, 1893; J. B. Ellis, Hist. of the Church of England in Jamaica, Kingston, 1891; A. Caldecott, The Church in the West Indies, London, 1898. Consult also the more general literature under MISSIONS.

WEST, SAMUEL: The name of two American Unitarian ministers.

1. Of New Bedford, Mass.; b. at Yarmouth, Cape Cod, Mass., Mar. 3, 1730 (O. S.); d. at Tiverton, Newport Co., R. I., Sept. 24, 1807. After a youth spent on his father's farm, he entered Harvard College (B.A., 1754), and after graduation spent several years in further study, much of his time being devoted to science, while in later years he developed a very marked interest in alchemy. In 1761 he was ordained to the ministry of the Congregational church at New Bedford, Mass., which he continued to serve, though at times much crippled financially, until age and impairment of mental powers forced him to retire in 1803. During the Revolution he served as a chaplain in the American forces at Boston, and took an active part as a member of the conventions for framing the constitution of Massachusetts and for adopting the constitution of the United States, his personal influence over his former classmate, Governor Hancock, largely securing the adhesion of his state to the American Constitution. Besides his addiction to alchemy, West devoted much time to the study of expected fulfilments of prophecy, and these traits, together with an almost incredible absent-mindedness, give a curious picture to the present day. Although he published a number of sermons, West is chiefly memorable for a polemic against Jonathan Edwards' doctrine of predestination, entitled Essays on Liberty and Necessity (2 parts, 1793–95).

2. Of Boston; b. at Martha's Vineyard, Mass., Nov. 19, 1738 (O. S.); d. at Boston, Mass., Apr. 10, 1808. After a youth of privation, he entered Harvard College (B.A., 1761), and on graduation was chosen chaplain to the garrison at Port Pownal, Penobscot, Me., where he spent a year. After acting as an occasional supply at Cambridge, where he had returned for further study, he was ordained in 1764 to the ministry of the church at Needham, Mass., where he remained, despite some friction owing to the delay of his congregation in paying him his salary, until 1789, when he assumed charge of the Hollis Street Church, Boston, where he labored regularly until 1801, after which increasing infirmity of age compelled him gradually to withdraw from active life. Brought up as a Calvinistic Trinitarian, West broke with Calvinism at an early period; his precise views on the Trinity are uncertain, but he was ranked as an opponent of the conservative school. His only publications were a number of sermons.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. B. Sprague, Annals of the American Unitarian Pulpit, New York, 1865, pp. 37-55; a biographical sketch of West of Boston by T. Thacher is also appended to the funeral sermon delivered by J. Lathrop, Boston, 1808. WEST, STEPHEN: b. in Tolland, Conn., Nov. 2, 1735; d. at Stockbridge, Mass., May 15, 1819.

He was graduated from Yale College, 1755; pursued his theological studies with Rev. Timothy Woodbridge of Hatfield, Mass.; was called in 1757 to be the military chaplain at Hoosac Fort; in 1758 he was invited, by the commissioners for Indian affairs in Boston, to succeed Jonathan Edwards in the Indian mission at Stockbridge, and was ordained pastor of the church at Stockbridge in 1759; here until 1775 he preached to the Indians in the moming and in the afternoon to the white settlers; after that year he confined his labors to the latter. Early in this pastorate he adopted the views of Jonathan Edwards; he then preached a series of sermons, which were afterward published in the form of an Essay on Moral Agency (New Haven, 1772, 2d ed., 1794). He next published his Essay on the Scripture Doctrine of the Atonement (1785; 2d ed., with appendix, 1815). After he had passed his eightieth year he issued his Evidence of the Divinity of the Lord Jesus Christ; Collected from the Scriptures (1816). He attracted to himself many theological pupils, who resided in his house, and uniformly spoke of him in terms of the highest admiration. . At least five of them became eminent as preachers and writers; among them may be noted Samuel Spring (q.v.), of Newburyport, and John Thornton Kirkland, presi dent of Harvard College.

West was not only a man of great diligence in study, but was also noted for practical insight and activity. It was partly in recognition of this that in 1793, when Williams College was incorporated, Dr. West was named as one of the trustees, and at the first meeting of the board was elected vice-president of the institution. He was one of Samuel Spring's chief counselors in forming the Creed and Associate Statutes of Andover Theological Seminary. He was also a pioneer in the organization and operation of various missionary and charitable institutions. Bibliography: W. B. Sprague, Annals of the American Pulpit, i. 548–556, New York, 1859; W. Walker, in American Church History Series, vol. iii. passim, ib. 1894; F. H. Foster, New England Theology, pp. 204 sqq., Chicago, 1907.

WESTCOTT, BROOKE FOSS: Church of England, bishop of Durham; b. near Birmingham JaL 12, 1825; d. at The Castle, Bishop Auckland (9 m. s.s.e. of Durham), July 27, 1901. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge (B.A., 1848; fellow, 1849; M.A., 1851; B.D., 1864; D.D., 1870); was ordained deacon and priest (1851); assistant master at Harrow School (1852–69); examining chaplain to the bishop of Peterborough (1868-83); canon residentiary (1869–83); rector of Somersham with Pidley and Colne, Hunts (1870–82); honorary chap lain to the queen (1875–79); select preacher at Oxford (1877–80); in 1870 became regius professor of divinity, Cambridge; in 1879, chaplain in ordinary to the queen; in 1882, fellow of King's College, Cambridge; in 1883, examining chaplain to the archbishop of Canterbury; in 1884, canon of Westminster; and in 1890, bishop of Durham. During 1881-83 he served as a member of the royal com mission on ecclesiastical courts; and was also › member of the New Testament Revision Company (1870–81). He is one of the brightest examples o English scholarship and industry, and is as remark able for the fine quality of his work as for the num

ber of volumes which he produced. He will probably be longest remembered for his joint production with Fenton John Anthony Hort (q.v.) of The New Testament in the Original Greek (2 vols., 1881). But the range of his studies was far wider than this, covering the New Testament canon, contributions on philosophy, and exegetical work of the highest rank. He was hardly less noted as a preacher than as a scholar. He was in demand as a speaker on topics of national, industrial, and social interest, and in 1892 almost alone succeeded in securing settlement of a dispute between coal-miners and employers which threatened to wreck the industries and works of transportation in the United Kingdom. He was a valued contributor to William Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (1863) and to the same editor's and Dean Henry Wace's Dictionary of Christian Biography (1877-87). His independent publications, some of which passed through numerous editions, comprise:

bishop of Trondhjem, had been driven from his diocese in 1658, he became vicar of Trondenäs, whence he undertook several journeys to the Finns; some he won to Christianity; in 1703 the schoolmaster Isaac Olsen went to East Finnmark, where the provost Paus recognized his worth and made him teacher at Waranger, where he labored faithfully for fourteen years in all sorts of perils and dangers. Under Frederick IV. of Denmark and Norway in 1707 a commission was given to Paul H. Resen to investigate the condition of schools and churches in the north; the direction following this to the bishop of Trondhjem to better conditions was disregarded in fact. In 1714 the king directed a mission to the Finns to be undertaken, entrusting the task to the Collegium de promovendo cursu Evangelii, and the choice of an agent fell on Westen. Preliminary training in the school of poverty and hardship had rendered Westen fit for the work. He had studied medicine at his father's command, but after his father's death (just as he was taking his degree) he studied theology under great privations; Frederick IV. appointed him a librarian without pay, 1707, and in 1710 he became pastor at Weö in Romsdalen; then in 1716 the Collegium made him vicar and chief of the mission to the Finns, and the same year he undertook his first journey among his people, while Bishop Krog of Trondhjem attempted to nullify his work. Westen settled missionaries, provided for houses of worship, gathered data, and laid the foundations for further work. On his return he founded a seminary for children of the Finns, at his own cost, and this had much to do with later success. Bishop Krog's hostility pursued him, but the king and the collegium supported him, so that new helpers came to his assistance in the persons of Arvid Bistok, Elias Heltberg, Martin Lund, and Erasmus Rachlew. With these in 1718 he began a new tour among the Finns, leaving his helpers settled in various places to do steady work, himself preaching, teaching, overcoming opposition wan

Elements of Gospel Harmony (Cambridge, 1851; Norrisian essay); A General Survey of the History of the Canon of the New Testament during the First Four Centuries (London, 1855); Characteristics of the Gospel Miracles (1859); Introduction to the Study of the Gospels (1860); The Bible in the Church (1864); The Gospel of the Resurrection (1866); A General View of the History of the English Bible (1868); Christian Life Manifold and One (sermons; 1872); Some Points in the Religious Office of the Universities (1873); The Revelation of the Risen Lord (London, 1882); The Gospel according to St. John (1882); The Historic Faith (lectures on the Apostles' Creed (1883); Epistles of St. John, Greek Text, Notes, and Essays (1883); Revelation of the Father: Titles of the Lord (1884); Christus Consummator: Some Aspects of the Work and Person of Christ in Relation to Modern Thought (sermons; 1886); Social Aspects of Christianity (1887); Victory of the Cross: Sermons in Holy Week (1888); Epistle to the Hebrews: Greek Text, with Notes (1889); Gifts for the Ministry: From Strength to Strength: Three Sermons (1890); Gospel of Life: a Study of Christian Doctrine (1892); Bishop Lightfoot (1894); The Incarnation and Common Life (1894, 2d ed., 1908); Christian Aspects of Life (1897); Some Lessons of the Revised Version of the New Testament (1897); Lessons from Work (1901); and the posthumous Words of Faith and Hope (1902); Christian Social Union Addresses (1903); Peterborough Sermons (1904); Village Sermons (1906); and The Two Empires; the Church and the World tonly placed in his way, and gaining the hearts of

(1909).

Bibliography: A. Westcott, Life and Letters of Brooke Fo88 Westcott, 2 vols., London, 1903, abridged ed., 1905; Mrs. H. Porter, Secret of a great Influence: Notes on Bishop Westcott's Teaching, ib. 1905; J. Clayton, Bishop Westcott, in Leaders of the Church, 1880–1900, ib. 1907; H. S. Holland, Brooke Foss Westcott, ib. 1910.

WESTEN, ves'ten, THOMAS: Apostle to the Norwegian Finns; b. in Trondhjem, Norway, Sept. 13, 1682; d. there Apr. 9, 1727. The people to whom he went live in the region, partly in Norway, north of 64 degrees north latitude; their present number is given as about 30,000, of whom 21,000 are in Norway; but earlier they must have been more numerous. By the Norwegians they are called Finns, which name they prefer; but the Swedes call them Lapps, with sinister suggestion. Their speech shows them related to the inhabitants of Finland. Christianity had earlier been imposed upon them, but heathenism had remained their preferred practise. The character of the ministrations had not been such as to win them to a regard for Christian beliefs. But before the time of Westen something had been done for the Finns by the Danish-Norwegian church. When Erich Bredahl,

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his people, who came to call him "the good man." The reports of Westen's labors caused a desire to hear from him in person, and he was called to Copenhagen, where to the king he related what was being done and what was necessary. He gained new helpers, and in 1722 began his third great missionary circuit. He found a thirst for knowledge and for the Gospel awakened, and established new schools, while the assistants gained the complete confidence of their people, who gave up their idolatry. On this journey Westen entered virgin territory, going among those who had sworn to kill him and his companions, and gained them for the Gospel.

From that time till his death Westen was permitted to see the fruits of his labors in the upbuilding of his people's faith. His travels and hardships had so undermined his health that he was unable to take long journeys, but he continued to make short visits to the nearer points, while his literary activities were continually employed in furthering the interests for which he had worked, though his story of the missions was not published and seems to have been lost. The opposition to which he was exposed by Bishop Krog increased and aggravated