is due to the Church's acting as guardian of the heritage of its members, while it will not grant its officers and representatives of learn 2. Candor ing the free use of new knowledge beand fore it has been compromised or recOrthodoxy, onciled with the old. It is then a matter for individuals or parties to choose between a conservative, a radical, or a mediating position. Mediating tendencies are usually alleged by their opponents to be "counterfeit.' This implies the demand that to the words and formulas of tradition must ever be given only their original meaning, while new views must employ new words and new formulas. Such a thing is impossible; for the store of words is limited, and the life of the language must perpetuate itself naturally only through a continuous change of the inherent sense. Even the most rigorous conservative observance of the import of words and formulas can not prevent some shifting of the meaning; for men change, and likewise their relation to tradition. There are no verbal instruments at the disposal of truthfulness other than those offered by a continuously changing language medium. Again, several systematists have drawn attention by placing the problems of truth and truthfulness in the center; namely, in religion W. Herrmann, and in ethics, among others, W. Koppelmann. Every definition of truthfulness as duty and virtue that exhausts itself simply in the agreement of speech and thought on the part of the professor is both trivial and unsatisfying. It is 3. Essentials apt to be wrecked presently on the of Truth- shoals of casuistry. Truthfulness is to fulness. be conceived as no less than that duty and virtue which constitute the ethical person himself and which permeate life uniformly in all its relations to the person. The truthful person is truthful though he be silent or even carries on untrue speech. He is such not only for himself, but disseminates an atmosphere of truthfulness about him. While the regard for the true import and degree of verity of a statement is of great pedagogical interest and solicits frequently the moral verdict upon itself, yet when it comes to the establishment of truthfulness in character and conduct, it all depends on whether men are truthful persons. That means men who do not belie themselves and who prove their uprightness with themselves in their relation with other men and with facts; men who do not deceive God, and hence not themselves or their fellow men; men who from an inner necessity and choice accept things as they are and represent themselves as being what they are. Religion is truthfulness toward God, and morality, if this be granted, is nothing but applied religion. (MARTIN RADE.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: The subject is of course treated in the works on Ethics (q.v.) such as R. Rothe's, iii. 537-602, Wittenberg, 1848; and W. Herrmann's, 3d ed., Tübingen, 1904. Three important books are: H. Rickert, Die Grenzen der naturwissenschaftlichen Begriffsbildung, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1896-1902; G. Simmel, Die Probleme der Geschichtsphilosophie, 2d ed., ib. 1905; and S. Eck, Religion und Geschichte, Tübingen, 1907. Consult further: A. A. Cournot, Essai sur les fondements de nos connaissances, 2 vols., Paris, 1851; J. F. Ferrier, Institutes of Metaphysics: the Theory of Knowing and Being, Edinburgh, 1854; W. Windelband, Ueber die Gewissheit der Erkenntniss, Berlin, 1873; J. Witte, Erkenntnisstheorie und Ethik, ib. 1877; H. P. Biddle, ments of Knowledge, Cincinnati, 1881; J. Rehmke, Die als Wahrnehmung und Begriff, Berlin, 1881; H. de c soles, La Certitude philosophique, Paris, 1883; E. de Pr sense, Les Origines. Le Probleme de la connaissance, 1883, Eng. transl., A Study of Origins, London, 18 G. Ellinger, Das Verhältnis der öffentlichen Mei zu Wahrheit und Lüge im 10.-12. Jahrhundert, Ber 1884; E. Burnouf, La Vie et la pensée, Paris, 1886; Grung, Das Problem der Gewissheit, Heidelberg, E. L. Fischer, Die Grundfragen der Erkenntnissthe Mainz, 1887; B. Lasch, Das Erwachen und die Entwi lung der historischen Kritik im Mittelalter, Breslau, 18 W. Poessnecker, Die Welt als unsere Erscheinungswell unsere Gedankwelt, Berlin, 1887; H. Bergson, Essai sur données immédiates de la conscience, Paris, 1890, E transl., Time and Free Will; An Essay on the Imm diate Data of Consciousness, London, 1910; A. Schmi Erkenntnisslehre, 2 vols., Freiburg, 1890; J. Gardair, Connaissance, Paris, 1895; J. Koestlin, Der Glaube, seine Bedeutung für Erkenntniss, Leben und Kirche, Berk 1895; H. Gomperz, Die Psychologie der logischen Gru thatsachen, Vienna, 1896; G. Gory, L'Immanence &¦ raison dans la connaisance sensible, Paris, 1896; D.! Jordan, The Stability of Truth, in Popular Science Moni i (1897), pp. 642–654, 749–757; S. H. Hodgson, The Me physics of Experience, 4 vols., London and New York, 18 St. G. Mivart, The Groundwork of Science, New Yorka London, 1898; J. W. Powell, Truth and Error; or, i Science of Intellection, Chicago, 1898; F. S. Turner, K edge, Belief and Certitude, London, 1900; J. Mausbach,) katholische Moral, Cologne, 1901; W. Herrmann, Ri sche und evangelische Sittlichkeit, 3d ed., Marburg, W. Koppelmann, Kritik des sittlichen Bewusstseins, Bef 1904; idem, Die Ethik Kants, ib. 1907. TRUXILLO, tru-hîl'yō (TRUJILLO), ORDI OF: An order of knights under the Cistercian founded in the thirteenth century, and taking i name from the town of Truxillo (130 m. s.v.| Madrid). The times were not favorable to maintenance of so many separate orders as w then in existence, and after a brief struggle, t order of Truxillo was united with the orders of cantara and Calatrava (qq.v.). TRYGOPHORUS, trai"gef'o-rus, JOHANN German Reformer; b. at Fritzlar (105 m. e. Cologne) in 1497; d. at Wildungen (8 m. w. Fritzlar) June 3, 1542. Born of pious pare named Hefenträger (from which the name he sumed was Grecized), he was early destined! clerical life, and two of his sisters were Benedic nuns. At Erfurt he became bachelor in philoso in 1517, was ordained priest in 1521, taking position of confessor to the Augustinian num his native town. The news of Luther's movem early reached the town, and Trygophorus acce the new Gospel, which he preached, and marr nun, with the result that he had to leave the to Meantime the Reformation had begun to work Waldeck, either through literary connections because of influences from Hesse and Westph The youthful but far-sighted and energetic ( Philip IV., who ruled in the southern portio the county, returned from the diet at Wo confirmed adherent of Luther. Philip III, controlled the northern part, seems to have led to Lutheranism by his second wife, And Cleves. Conditions were favorable to a complet troduction of the Reformation when the right appeared. At this juncture Trygophorus was by Philip IV. to the little city of Waldeck, and operations were soon successful. In 1531 he' called to Wildungen, the residence of Philip IV., and there began a work of real significance in establishing the church of the Reformation in Waldeck. He was the leader and initiator of the various steps, introducing catechetical instruction and producing an antiphonary for the church service. Trygophorus was a man of marked genius and practical bent, was recognized in the region as an authority in religious matters second only to Luther and Melanchthon, and did no little service by his gifts for liturgics. He was a man of great earnestness and strong will, resolute in his fidelity to strict Lutheranism and in opposition to Roman Catholic or sectarian tendencies, so that the Waldeck church possessed always the character of a strictly Lutheran body. (VICTOR SCHULTZE.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: V. Schultze, Waldeckische Reformationsgeschichte, Leipsic, 1903, cf. ZKG, 1907, pp. 60 sqq. TSCHACKERT, tchak'ert, PAUL MORITZ ROBERT: German Protestant; b. at Freystadt (22 m. n.w. of Glogau), Lower Silesia, Jan. 10, 1848; d. at Göttingen July 7, 1911. He studied at the universities of Breslau, Halle, and Göttingen, 1868-74 (lic.theol., Breslau, 1875; Ph.D., Leipsic, 1875), and in 1875 became privat-docent for historical theology at Breslau; associate professor of church history at Halle, 1877; full professor of the same subject at Königsberg, 1884; and after 1889 was professor of church history at Göttingen. In theology he belonged to the school of Tholuck and Julius Müller. Besides his work as associate editor of the Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für niedersächsische Kirchengeschichte and of the thirteenth and fourteenth editions of J. H. Kurtz's Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte (in collaboration with G. N. Bonwetsch; Leipsic, 1899, 1906), and of Die unveränderte Augsburger Konfession (1901), he wrote or edited Anna Maria von Schürmann (Gotha, 1876); Peter von Ailli (1877); Die Päpste der Renaissance (Heidelberg, 1879); Evangelische Polemik gegen die römische Kirche (Gotha, 1885); Vorteile und Gefahren, welche der Mission aus der Kolonialpolitik erwachsen (Leipsic, 1886); Johannes Briessmanns Flosculi (Gotha, 1887); Georg von Polenz, Bischof von Samland (Leipsic, 1888); Unbekannte handschriftliche Predigten und Scholien Martin Luthers (1888); Urkundenbuch zur Reformationsgeschichte des Herzogtums Preussen (3 vols., 1890); Paul Speratus von Rötlin (Halle, 1891); Herzog Albrecht von Preussen (Halle, 1894); Ungedruckte Briefe zur allgemeinen Reformationsgeschichte (Göttingen, 1894); Magister Johannes Sutel (Brunswick, 1897); Herzogin Elisabeth von Münden (Leipsic, 1899); Antonius Corvinus' Leben und Schriften (Hanover, 1900); Briefwechsel des Antonius Corvinus (1900); Staat und Kirche im Königreich Preussen (Göttingen, 1901); Modus vivendi. Grundlinien für das Zusammenleben der Konfessionen im deutschen Reich (Munich, 1908); Herzog Albrecht von Preussen als angeblich bedeutender geistlicher Liederdichter der Reformationszeit (Königsberg, 1909); and Die Entstehung der lutherischen und reformierten Kirchenlehre samt ihren innerprotestantischen Gegensätzen (Göttingen, 1910). TUBAL. See Gog and MagOG; and TABLE OF THE NATIONS, § 4. XII.-3 Tucker TUCH, tuн, FRIEDRICH: German Lutheran; b. at Quedlinburg Dec. 17, 1806; d. at Leipsic Apr. 12, 1867. He was educated at the University of Halle (1825-29), where he became privat-docent in 1830 in the philosophical faculty, lecturing at first on Hebrew and other Semitic languages, and later on all subjects pertaining to the Old Testament. After being associate professor at Halle for a time, he was called, in 1841, to Leipsic in a similar capacity, becoming full professor two years later; in 1853 he became also canon of Zeitz. The chief work of Tuch was his Kommentar über die Genesis (Halle, 1838), a book distinguished for its grammatical acumen, wealth of information on the topography, flora, fauna, and customs of Palestine, and recognition of the historical kernel in the primitive records of Israel. The major portion of his writings, however, were brief programs and the like. These fall into two groups: linguistic and geographical. Among the former mention should be made of his De Ethiopica linguæ sonorum proprietatibus quibusdam (Leipsic, 1854); De Ethiopica linguæ sonorum sibilantium natura et usu (1854); as well as of his Einundzwanzig sinaitische Inschriften (1849), though his attempt to prove these Sinaitic inscriptions pure Arabic is now known to be erroneous. In the second category his most noteworthy contributions were: De Nino urbe (1845), proving that Nineveh could have been situated only on the east bank of the Tigris; Reise des Sheikh Ibrahim el-Krijari el-Medeni durch einen Teil Palästinas (1850), and Antoninus Martyr, seine Zeit und seine Pilgerfahrt nach dem Morgenlande (1864), the first treating of a Mohammedan traveler of the seventeenth century and the second of an Italian pilgrim of the late sixth century; and Masada, die herodianische Felsenfeste (1863), identifying Masada with the Allusion heap of ruins at the modern Sabbah. should also be made to his Die Himmelfahrt Jesu, eine topographische Frage (1857), in which he sought to prove that Bethany was the place of the ascension; as well as to his Commentatio de Maisaloth en Arbelois 1 Mak. 9, 2 (1853), and his Quæstiones de Flavii Josephi libris historicis (1859). (VICTOR RYSSEL†.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: V. Ryssel, in ZKW, 1886, pp. 169 sqq.; ADB, xxxviii. 754 8qq. TUCKER, BEVERLY DANDRIDGE: Protestant Episcopal assistant bishop of southern Virginia; b. at Richmond, Va., Nov. 9, 1847. During the Civil War he served, despite his youth, on the Confederate side, and after the close of hostilities resumed his studies, being graduated from the Virginia Theological Seminary in 1873. He was ordered deacon in the same year and advanced to the priesthood in 1875, and from 1873 to 1882 was minister and rector in North Farnham Parish, Va. He was then rector of St. Paul's, Norfolk, Va., until 1906, when he was consecrated assistant bishop of southern Virginia. TUCKER, FREDERICK ST. GEORGE DE LAUTOUR. See BOOTH TUCKER. TUCKER, WILLIAM JEWETT: Congregationalist; b. at Griswold, Conn., July 13, 1839. He was educated at Dartmouth (A.B., 1861), and, after Tuebingen School being a teacher for two years, entered Andover Theological Seminary (graduated 1866). He was pastor of Franklin Street Congregational Church, Manchester, N. H. (1866-75); pastor of Madison Square Presbyterian Church, New York (1875–79); professor of sacred rhetoric in Andover Theological Seminary (1879-93); and in 1893 was elected president of Dartmouth College, which position he resigned in 1908. At Boston he founded the social settlement called Andover House, and, in addition to assisting in editing The Andover Review, has written The new Movement in Humanity: From Liberty to Unity (Boston, 1892), and Making and Unmaking of the Preacher (Lyman Beecher lectures at Yale; 1899). TUCKERMAN, JOSEPH: American Unitarian philanthropist; b. in Boston Jan. 18, 1778; d. at Havana Apr. 20, 1840. He was graduated from Harvard College, 1798; was pastor at Chelsea, Mass., 1801-26; in 1812 founded at Boston the first American society for the religious and moral improvement of seamen; in 1826 took charge of the Ministry at Large," a city mission organized by the Benevolent Fraternity of Churches in Boston; visited Europe to promote similar organizations, and on his return, in 1838, published Principles and Results of the Ministry at Large. He has a permanent place in the front rank of those who have promoted reform in philanthropic effort. His principal writings were collected under the title The Elevation of the Poor (Boston, 1874). BIBLIOGRAPHY: His life was written by W. E. Channing, Boston, 1841, and by Mary Carpenter, London, 1849. TUCKNEY, ANTHONY: b. at Kirton, Lincolnshire, Eng., Sept., 1559; d. Feb., 1670. He was educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and took his master's degree in 1622, his B.D. in 1627. He became domestic chaplain to the earl of Lincoln, but, after he was chosen fellow of his college, returned and was a very successful teacher. He then became assistant to John Cotton at Boston, and, after Cotton's departure to New England, his successor. In 1643 he was appointed member of the Westminster Assembly of Divines for the county of Lincoln, and was one of the most active and influential members. After the death of Herbert Palmer, he was made chairman of the committee on the catechisms. He had a chief hand in the questions relating to the divine law in the Larger Catechism, and in the construction of the entire Shorter Catechism. While at London, he was minister of St. Michael le Querne until 1648. He was made master of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, in 1645, vice-chancellor of the university in 1648, master of St. John's College in 1653, and regius professor of divinity of the university. He was one of the commissioners at the Savoy, but failed to attend. He was silenced for non-conformity. His controversy with Benjamin Whichcote is important as showing the break of a new era in Whichcote, his pupil, out of the old era in Tuckney, the teacher. These eight letters discuss the use of reason in religion, as well as differences among Christians, in a calm, dignified, and charitable spirit. They are models of Christian controversy. Tuckney's Parliament Sermons a other occasional pieces were published during hi lifetime; but his principal works are posthumous Forty Sermons upon Several Occasions (Londo 1676); Prælectiones theologica (Amsterdam, 167) C. A. BRIGGS, BIBLIOGRAPHY: DNB, lvii. 286–288 (gives references to se tering notices. TUDELA, BENJAMIN OF. See BENJAMIN TUDELA. TUDESCHIS, NICOLAUS DE. See PANORM TANUS. TUEBINGEN BIBLE. See BIBLES, ANNOTATED PFAFF, CHRISTOPH MATTHEUS. TUEBINGEN SCHOOL, NEW. See BAUR, F.Q Criticism of Storr's Doctrine; Works (§ 3). The older Tübingen school of theology, impo tant in the Protestant theology of the eighteent and nineteenth centuries through its concept "Biblical supranaturalism," owed its rise to Go lob Christian Storr (b. at Stuttgart Sept. 10, 174 d. there Jan. 17, 1805). He was ed 1. Gottlob cated at Tübingen (1763-68), wher Christian he long devoted himself exclusivel Storr. to the study of the New Testament and in 1769-71 made a tour of Ge many, Holland, England, and France, studying a pursuing researches in the libraries of Leyden, ford, and Paris. Returning to Tübingen, he e bodied his results in his Observationes super Nr Testamenti versionibus Syriacis (1772) and Disser tio de evangeliis Arabicis (1775), the latter his augural address as associate professor of philos phy. He was transferred to the theological faculty 1777; became fourth professor of theology, sped superintendent, and city pastor, 1780; and full pr fessor, second superintendent of the theologis seminary, and third morning preacher, 1786; a he was consistorial councilor and chief court chs lain at Stuttgart, 1797-1805. Characterized unusual acumen, power of combination, and wearying energy, though lacking in imagination speculative talent, he acquired a comprehens education and profound learning. This was ported by a personality distinguished for uprig piety and moral earnestness, tempered with a some gentleness and humanity, commanding esteem of friend and adversary alike. Notwil standing, his sermons (3 vols., Stuttgart, 1806lack warmth and depth of feeling, being dry, saic, didactic, and almost wholly constructed Bible passages. The attention which they manded can be explained only by the reflection his venerable and sincere personality. The accession of Storr to the faculty marked beginning of a new epoch in the history of the ology of Tübingen. The Lutheran orthodoxy tablished there late in the sixteenth century retained unbroken sway. The Church of Württemberg had remained true to its Biblical trend, its essentially irenic position, and its 2. Doctrine desire to unite theological theory with of Storr. practical religion, traits which it owed specially to the influence of Johann Brenz (q.v.). In the controversies of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the theologians of Tübingen had stood by the Formula of Concord, without relinquishing their Biblical-practical point of view. Early in the eighteenth century the chancellor of the university, J. W. Jäger (1702–20), in dependence on the method of Johannes Cocceius (q.v.), sought to introduce a system of greater vitality, and his efforts were carried still further by C.M. Pfaff (q.v.) and C. E. Weismann (q.v.), Pfaff tending toward the school of Georg Calixtus (q.v.), and Weismann toward that of Spener and J. A. Bengel (qq.v.). Nevertheless, neither the Bengel school nor the Wolffian philosophy could introduce a new phase of theology at Tübingen, though the former imparted its quiet Biblical stimulus. Meanwhile, in the second half of the eighteenth century, the Enlightenment (q.v.) began to assail all positive Christianity. It thus became necessary to gain a point of view which should retain the inalienable elements of the old truths while changing their forms in adjustment with the new normative influences. Such was the task which Storr desired and sought to accomplish. Abandoning the orthodox substructure, he deemed it possible to lay a sure foundation for scientific theology and dogmatics on the sole authority of divine revelation as contained in the Bible, and attempted to derive the Christian truth from these sources through grammatical and historical exegesis and through systematic logic. He aimed first to prove the authenticity and integrity of the New-Testament writings from historical evidences, and the credibility of the authors from their relation to the events reported, from their characteristic points of view to be identified in the writings, and from the inevitable controlling influence of partizans and opponents. These authenticated Scriptures afford as a result that upon Christ devolves, in the highest sense, the authority of a divine ambassador, which was substantiated by his perfect ethical thought and conduct, but particularly the divine miracles. From this authority follow in order, the truth of his doctrine, the authority of the apostles and the truth of their teaching, the inspiration of the apostolic writings, and, finally, the recognition and inspiration of the Old Testament, so far as the latter is attested by divinely accredited men. This position of Storr was distinguished from orthodoxy by his substitution of the authority of Jesus and his apostles for the inspiration of the Scriptures, by making the Scripture the sole source, even the text-book, of Christian teaching, and by his derivation of not only "human faith but indirectly also divine faith" from empirical historical deduction, while in doubt about attributing the virtue of proof to the "testimony of the Holy Spirit. From the Enlightenment he differs sharply by the manner in which he employed historical and logical proofs in the service of the principle of authority. After the " Tuckerman Tuebingen School establishment of the authority of Christ and the Bible, he needed no further internal proof of Christian truth from reason or experience. Claiming to deal also reasonably in receiving implicitly upon the attested authority of Scripture what reason is unable of itself to establish out of the nature of the case, Storr thus professes a merely formal principle of authority, the supernaturalism of the Christian truth, and a purely instrumental use of reason. This system was admirably carried out in his Annotationes theologicæ ad philosophicam Kantii de religione doctrinam (Tübingen, 1793; Germ. transl., 1794), in which he maintained that he who refused to credit authorities that had shared the advantage of receiving special experiences, merely because their teachings could not be deduced from the principles of unaided reason, deserted the point of view of true criticism. Such testimonies, on the contrary, should be seriously considered, just so soon as their moral efficacy was firmly established. With respect to the latter, the Christian historical faith indubitably surpassed the pallid, blank belief of pure reason. Storr also employed Kant's postulate of a necessary harmony between virtue and happiness to justify the New-Testament union of religion and morality. For Storr there can be no occasion for the material influence of any philosophy whatsoever on the content of Christian doctrine. According to him, dogmatics and ethics had simply to combine the results of exegesis, but this was to result largely, as F. C. Baur pointed out, in an artificial congeries of passages from all parts of the Old and New Testaments, without regard to the genetic evolution of Biblical truth. For him there are no writings of the canon but only passages without discrimination of value, which is due to the fact that the principle of unity is not organic but formal authority. With reference to the doctrine of sin and grace, the result of his work seems to be a Semipelagian simplification and moderating of the dogma, satisfying neither deep religious nor scientific in3. Criticism terest. Thus he debased faith from of Storr's divinely prepared receptivity for reDoctrine; generating grace to an autonomous Works. human moral relation, and regarded the Holy Ghost as a mere factor to aid and complete human activity. On the atonement he based the remission of punishment only on the passive obedience of Christ, accepting unquestioningly the formal equivalence of the passion of Christ with the sins of the world, and deducing from the active obedience of the Savior (to which he was also bound for himself) only the positive results of his exaltation and the beatification of his brethIn his Christology, Storr, professing to be in accord with orthodoxy on the deity of Christ, but avoiding the Communicatio idiomatum (q.v.), and thus losing hold of the true incarnation of the Logos, perhaps unconsciously approximated a Socinian view of the person of Christ (see MONARCHIANISM; also SOCINUS, FAUSTUS, SOCINIANS). The dogmatic system of Storr is set forth especially in his last important work, Doctrinæ Christianæ pars theoreticae sacris litteris repetita (1793; Germ. transl. enlarged by K. C. Flatt, Stuttgart, 1803), which ren. Tulloch long enjoyed official recognition in Württemberg. In exegesis he combated the accommodation hypothesis represented by J. S. Semler and A. Teller. His principal critical exegetical works are Neue Apologie der Offenbarung Johannis (Tübingen, 1783); Zweck der evangelischen Geschichte und der Briefe Johannis (1786), a keen and far-sighted study in relation with the Synoptic Gospels, by which, according to Baur, the critical study of the Fourth Gospel was much advanced; and Erläuterung an die Hebräer (1789), containing a treatment of the purpose of the death of Jesus. The school of Storr, in the narrower sense, was composed of J. F. Flatt, F. S. Süskind, and K. C. Flatt, all his immediate pupils and successors, and in part his colleagues in the theolog4. The ical faculty. Johann Friedrich Flatt School (b. at Tübingen Feb. 20, 1759; d. of Storr; there Nov. 24, 1821), educated at TüJ. F. Flatt. bingen, and appointed professor of philosophy in 1785, was an enthusiastic Kantian. Transferred to the theological faculty in 1792, he lectured principally on Christian ethics, and, besides, on New-Testament exegesis, apologetics, and practical theology, and, for a brief period, 1798, on dogmatics. From 1796 he edited the Magazin für Dogmatik und Moral. The Vorlesungen über Christliche Moral was published (Tübingen, 1823), as were his lectures on the Pauline Epistles (1820 sqq.). Theological contributions were, De deitate Christi (Göttingen, 1788), a prize treatise assigned by the University of Göttingen, at the direction of George II. of England; and Beiträge zur christlichen Dogmatik und Moral (Tübingen, 1792). Friedrich Gottlieb Süskind (b. at Neustadt-onthe-Linde Feb. 17, 1767; d. at Stuttgart Nov. 12, 1829), educated at Tübingen (1783–88), succeeded Storr as professor of dogmatics (1798); and in 1805 as chief court chaplain and 5. F. G. Süskind; consistorial councilor at Stuttgart, K. C. Flatt. where he was appointed director of the council for higher education in 1814. As a theologian he was enlisted in the solution of the basal problems of apologetics and dogmatics, by the application of philosophy and exegesis. He sharply opposed the contemporary philosophy of religion set forth by Kant, Fichte, and Schelling; and finally came somewhat into accord with the theology of Schleiermacher. He was preeminently the dialectician of the older Tübingen school, but entirely lacking in the speculative power to grasp the organic unity from the point of view of a supreme idea. In his later official position his “categorical and dictatorial" resoluteness often caused offense, especially as redactor of the unpopular Württemberg liturgy of 1809, yet he was a man of the most rigid integrity, and far more stern to himself than to others. He was editor of Flatt's Magazin (1803-12), in which many of his apologetic and polemic articles appeared. Karl Christian Flatt (b. at Stuttgart Aug. 18, 1772; d. Nov. 20, 1843), the younger brother of Johann Friedrich, was educated at Tübingen, after which he traveled extensively in Germany, residing for some time at Göttingen. During this period he devoted himself to the Kantian philosophy, the results being set fort in his Philosophisch-exegetische Untersuchungen übe die Lehre von der Versöhnung des Menschen mit Ga (2 parts, Göttingen and Stuttgart, 1797-98), in which he endeavored to show that the doctrine o the atonement resulting from Kant's system, wher by the forgiveness of sins is determined by the d gree of moral improvement, is not only the s reasonable one, but the only one based on the Ne Testament. This view he retracted on becoming professor of theology at Tübingen in 1804, appar ently on Storr's demand. In his lectures and in hi publications later he became in all respects a plian adherent of the tendency represented by his brothe and by Storr. His views appeared in timely art cles in Flatt's Magazin. With his call to Stuttgan as collegiate preacher and supreme consistorial councilor in 1812, and with his appointment as d rector of higher education in 1829 (this carryin with it the general superintendency of Ulm), literary activity ceased. These three theologians, following in the steps Storr, endeavored to wrench from the philosophy the period concessions in behalf of their own theor of revelation. For the conceivableness of revel tion, which they held to be the com 6. Critical munication of higher truths, the Review of appealed to the limits of human re the School. son, justifying faith in revelation alleging its value for the furtheram of morality. This apologetic was inadequate i reveal to view the entire depth of the prevailin chasm, or to render justice to the set weight a | independent peculiarity of Christian convictin Their well-meant and not seldom acute defense hampered in advance by their unvitalized conc tion of God, and, as a consequence, the externalit of their theory of revelation. Another impedime was the absorbent relationship of their own meth of demonstration with the leading motive of t very rationalistic mode of thought that they w assailing. Only one result could follow: the ration izing of their own dogma with increasing measu The Biblical criticism and exegesis of Storr's scho in like manner, was essentially that of their mast a struggle against the accommodation hypothesi against the derivation of fundamental Christ truths from contemporary ideas, and against # attacks on the authenticity of the Gospels. Less intimately connected with this school Ernst Gottlieb Bengel (b. at Zavelstein, 23 m. w.& of Stuttgart Nov. 3, 1769; d. at 1 7. E. G. bingen Mar. 28, 1826), grandson Bengel. the famous Johann Albrecht Be (q.v.). He became professor of t ology at Tübingen, 1806; and prelate, 1820; chiefly represented historical theology. Even m than the rest of the school, Bengel approxim Socinianism, a result due to the inner relations of the dogmatic point of view, specially since the pernaturalistic apologetic, too, laid essential st on the credibility of the Biblical authors and on purely supernatural character of the revelation parted through them. The practical rationalis Socinianism he sought to deepen and comple with the Kantian philosophy, the ethical basi which he had adopted more fully than the others of the school. Bengel's dogmatic system is therefore to be characterized by the so-called rational supernaturalism (see RATIONALISM AND SUPERNATURALISM, II., § 6), recognizing in revelation a supernatural corroboration and representation in fact of rational truth as also a certain amplification. All this is best represented in the ten dissertations on the development of belief in immortality and the relation of revelation to it (cf. Opuscula academica, Hamburg, 1834; also Reden über Religion und Offenbarung, Tübingen, 1831). Characteristic also was his Pelagianism which held the divergency between Protestantism and Roman Catholicism regarding justification to be a mere logomachy, while the concept of faith was transposed to that of moral improvement and change of disposition (Archiv für die Theologie, I., ii. 469, the journal succeeding Flatt's Magazin in 1816; published by Bengel, 1816-26; and renamed Neues Archiv, 1822). Obdurate in his position, Bengel stood at bay to every regenerating philosophical influence, taking notice of Schleiermacher only by reproaching him with "mysticism and pantheism " and suppressing the deviation of his junior colleague, G. F. Bockshammer (1784-1822). This dominating preeminence he was able to maintain by the formal device of satisfying the rationalistic party, by disguising, under the obvious attack upon rationalism, a virtual material compromise with it, and, on the other hand, the Biblical positive view was conciliated by the overtowering supernaturalism. To this his imposing personality in the lecture-room and his commanding power at the head of the university added weight, so that upon his sudden death his loss was deemed irreparable. Other theologians of Tübingen and Württemberg, principally J. C. F. Steudel (d. 1837), C. F. Schmid (d. 1852), and C. B. Klaiber (d. 1836), while clearly representing the influence of the older Tübingen school, yet manifest such a diversification of the original views, specially as affected by the theology of Schleiermacher, that they can scarcely be rated with that school. After its disappearance, the school was again revived and continued, in a certain sense, by the independent Biblical theologian J. T. Beck (q.v.) and his followers. For the later Tübingen School see BAUR, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN, AND THE LATER TÜBINGEN SCHOOL. (O. KIRN†.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: Consult the works on church history (Kirchengeschichte) issued by the Calwer Verlagsverein, pp. 449 sqq., 566 sqq., Stuttgart, 1893; and F. C. Baur, p. 98, Leipsic, 1862; and those on history of doctrine or theology by F. C. Baur, iii. 308 sqq., Leipsic, 1867; W. Gass, iv. 141, 503 sqq., Berlin, 1867; M. A. Landerer, pp. 156 sqq., Altenburg, 1881; and G. Frank, iii. 383, Leipsic, 1905. Also, C. Weizsäcker, Lehrer und Unterricht an der evangelisch-theologischen Fakultät der Universität Tübingen, pp. 131 sqq., Tübingen, 1877. TULLOCH, tuľoc, JOHN: Church of Scotland, divine and educator; b. at Dron, near Tibbermuir (5 m. w. of Perth), June 1, 1823; d. at Torquay, England, Feb. 13, 1886. He was educated at St. Andrew's and Edinburgh; became parish minister at Dundee 1845, and at Kettins, Forfarshire, 1849, principal and primarius professor of divinity in St. Mary's College, St. Andrew's Univer sity, 1854; and senior principal of the university, 1860. His theological standpoint was thus defined by himself: "Broad evangelical. The aim is to see all Christian truth first in its pure historical form-the mind of Christ, the thought of St. Paul, the teaching of St. James; then its living relation to the Christian consciousness-what man needs, what God gives. The historic method, rightly applied, is the primary key to all Christian truth; and the renovation of theology is through this method bringing all Christian ideas freshly into the light of consciousness.' He studied theology in Germany in 1847-48 and 1863–64. He was " especially attracted by Neander, and much interested by the problems raised by the Tübingen school and the writings of F. C. Baur, and greatly attracted in late years by Dean Stanley's historical writings and He Bishop Lightfoot's critico-historical essays.' was an ardent student of literature and philosophy, and his writings are highly prized. He first came into notice when in Dundee, by his frequent contributions in the Dundee Advertiser; but later by his elaborate articles in The North-British Review, The British Quarterly, and Kitto's Journal of Sacred Literature. Two of his articles-one on Carlyle's Life of Sterling (North-British Review, vol. iv., 1845), the other on Bunsen's Hippolytus (the same, vol. xix., 1853)-attracted wide attention; and the latter so pleased Baron Bunsen that he successfully exerted his influence to press Tulloch's claim to the principalship in St. Mary's College. His appointment when barely thirty years old to this position, one of the most dignified and responsible connected with the Established Church of Scotland, was naturally a great surprise and occasion of unfavorable remark. But he soon proved his fitness for the office. In 1856 he was appointed one of the examiners of the Dick bequest, and so continued until his death. In 1858 he was deputed by the General Assembly of the Church to open the Scotch Presbyterian Church in Paris, and preached there during the In 1859 he was appointed one of her Majesty's chaplains for Scotland, and often preached before the queen at Crathie. In 1862 he became deputy clerk of the General Assembly, in 1875 clerk, and in 1878 was elected moderator. As university head, preacher, essayist, historian, theologian, and in private life he was highly esteemed, his death was sincerely mourned, and his memory is still cherished. Principal Tulloch's chief contributions to literature were: Theism; the Witness of Reason and Nature to an all-wise and beneficent Creator (Edinburgh, 1855), second Burnett prize essay; Leaders of the Reformation, Luther, Calvin, Latimer, Knox (1859; enlarged ed., Luther and Other Leaders of the Reformation, 1888); English Puritanism and its Leaders, Cromwell, Milton, Baxter, Bunyan (1861); The Christ of the Gospels and the Christ of Modern Criticism (1864), on Renan's Vie de Jésus; Rational Theology and Christian Philosophy in England in the Seventeenth Century (2 vols., 1872); Pascal (1876); The Christian Doctrine of Sin (1877); Modern Theories in Philosophy and Religion (1884); Movements of Religious Thought in Britain during the Nineteenth Century (1885); National Religion in Theory and Fact (1886), two volumes of sermons-Some Facts of Religion and summer. Turkey Life (1877), and Sundays at Balmoral (1887), as well as occasional sermons, addresses, and the like. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mrs. M, O. Oliphant, Memoir of the Life of John Tulloch, Edinburgh, 1888; W. Knight, Principal Shairp and his Friends, London, 1888; A. K. H. Boyd, Twenty-five Years of St. Andrews, 2 vols., ib. 1892-93; DNB, lvii. 307–310. TUNICLE or DALMATIC. See VESTMENTS AND INSIGNIA, ECCLESIASTICAL. TUNKERS. See DUNKERS. TUOTILO. See SAINT GALL, § 2. TURGOT, tür"gō' (JOHANNES TURGOTUS): Bishop of St. Andrews; d. at Durham Aug. 31, 1115. He was born in Lincolnshire of good Saxon family, fled to Norway after the Norman conquest, and prospered there. After a time he undertook to return to England, lost his property by shipwreck, and entered the monastery at Jarrow in 1074. He became prior of Durham in 1087, archdeacon about I. Statistical and Political. The Empire; the Governing Race (§ 1). Constitution; Ecclesiastical Control (§ 2). 1093, in which year he assisted in laying the four. dation of the new cathedral. He was confesso, friend, and confidential adviser of Queen Margan of Scotland (d. 1093; see MARGARET, SAINT), and in 1107 was appointed bishop of St. Andrews by he son Alexander, but, owing to a dispute as to the authority of the archbishop of York over the Scot. tish Church, was not consecrated till Aug. 1, 1109; the controversy continued to trouble him till his death. He is the probable author of a life of St Margaret (printed in ASB, June, ii. 320–340, when it is ascribed to an otherwise unknown Theodoricus Eng. transl. by W. Forbes Leith, 3d ed., Edinburgh 1896); also of Historia ecclesiæ et episcoporum Dv nelmensium, published in H. Wharton's Angl sacra, i. 705–717, London, 1691. BIBLIOGRAPHY: T. Wright, Biographia Britannica literaria, ii. 70-73, London, 1846; ASB, June, ii. 320–322; J. Į Low, Durham, London, 1881; W. F. Skene, Celtic Scotland 2d ed., 3 vols., Edinburgh, 1886–90; DNB, lvii. 326–327, TURKEY. II. Protestant Missions. I. Statistical and Political: [Turkey is a composite empire, since 1908 a constitutional monarchy, having possessions or dependencies in three continents -Europe, Asia, and Africa. Its principal boundaries are: on the north Austria, Servia, Bulgaria, and the Black Sea; on the northeast I. The and east Russia, Persia, and the PerEmpire; sian Gulf; on the south the Indian the Govern- Ocean, the Libyan Desert, and the ing Race. Sahara; and on the west, in Europe, the Ionian Sea and Adriatic. Its possessions are in Africa, Egypt, Tunis, and Tripoli until 1911, when Italy annexed it. Its area was estimated (1909) at 1,565,000 square miles, and its population, principally Mohammedan, at 35,400,000. For the distribution of the population among the faiths professed only estimates are available. Thus for the Ægean Islands the numbers given (1909) are 296,800 Christians, 27,200 Mohammedans; for Asia Minor, 7,179,900 Mohammedans, 576,200 Armenians, 972,300 other Christians, 184,600 Jews and others; for Armenia, 1,795,800 Mohammedans, 480,700 Armenians, 165,200 other Christians, 30,700 Jews and others. The number of mosques in the empire are 2,120; of Mohammedan clergy, 11,600, of whom the Sheik-ul-Islam is chief.] The Ottoman Turks who founded the Turkish Empire first appeared in Asia Minor in the thirteenth century— a small tribe of 400 families--coming from Central Asia. As conquerors and as rulers over conquered races they have never been surpassed. At the beginning of the fourteenth century they had established a kingdom under Othman, and this dynasty has ruled in an unbroken succession for more than 600 years. In 1326 they captured Brusa and made it their capital. Before the end of the century they had extended their empire to the Danube in Europe and in 1453 they captured Constantinople. In 1529 they were besieging Vienna. Before this, in 1517, they had made themselves masters of Syria, Arabia, Other Missions (§ 3). III. Roman Catholic Missions. and Egypt, and Sultan Selim had won for his hous the califate of Islam. The Ottoman Turks wer already converted to Mohammedanism when the entered upon their career of conquest, and for 40 years the constitution of the government has bee strictly Mohammedan. Since the time of Selim the claim of the sultans to be the califs of the Moham medan world has been generally recognized on a count of their ability to maintain it and their po session of the holy cities, in spite of the fact the the prophet himself declared that the calif mus be an Arab of the tribe of Koreish. The sultan have always been absolute autocrats, and the lay of the empire has been the Shéraat, which is base upon the Koran, the traditions, and the decision of the distinguished doctors of the law. Under pre sure from the powers of Europe a body of civil la based upon the Code Napoléon was added to th Shéraat some fifty years ago and courts establishe to administer it--but the results have been ver unsatisfactory and the government has never be more arbitrary and tyrannical than during the pa thirty years and never more fanatically Mohar medan. July, 1908, seemed to mark the dawn of a per era in Turkey. The Ottoman Turks had seen power of their empire declining and its extent minishing for 200 years, while the power and inft ence of Christian Europe dominated the work The palace camarilla which ruled 2. Constitu- the name of Sultan Abd-ul-Hamid b tion; Eccle- not only oppressed and massacred th siastical Christian subjects of the empire, Control. had crushed the spirit of the Turk Some 50,000 of the more intellige and enlightened of them had been put to death exiled. Many had fled to Europe. There they ganized a revolution which is expected to transfor Turkey into a free, constitutional empireequal rights for all. The watchwords of the régime are liberty, equality, fraternity, and justice. The sultan was not at first deposed, but was made to accept the constitution-which recognizes the sovereignty of the dynasty of Othman, Mohammedanism as the religion of the State, and the sultan as calif of Islam, but promises religious liberty, freedom of the press, freedom of speech, equal rights, and equal duties for all races and religions secured by a parliament where all are equally represented and by a reformed judiciary. In 1909 an attempt was made to subvert the constitution, but Abd-ul-Hamid was shown to have been concerned in the attempt and was deposed, and his brother, Mohammed V., was raised to the throne. This revolution is the work of the same Ottoman Turks as have ruled the empire for 600 years. They constitute about one-fifth of the population of the empire and hope that a strong and regenerated Turkey will restore their influence in the Mohammedan world. It remains to be seen how far it is possible to graft these Christian principles upon Mohammedanism and how far the Christian nationalities in the empire will consent to give up the special privileges which have been assured to them ever since the capture of Constantinople, and have served to protect their national churches from destruction. The Arabs, Albanians, Kurds, and other Mohammedan races have never loved the Turks, while the Christian races have always hoped and prayed for the decay and disappearance of the Turkish rule. In 1909 in Constantinople, officially recognized by the Porte, there were patriarchs of the Armenian, Armenian Catholic, Latin and Orthodox (Greek) churches, the exarch of the Bulgarian church, the vekil of the Protestants, and the Haham Bashi of the Jews. They are appointed by the sultan and have considerable civil as well as ecclesiastical authority over their flocks. In these organizations political interests have often taken the place of the concerns of religion, and, except the Protestants and Catholics, none of these religious bodies have done anything since the Turkish conquest to propagate their faith. As these communities are protected by European powers it will be impossible for the Turks to deprive them of these privileges by force, and their political interests and aspirations will lead them to cling as far as possible to these separate organizations. II. Protestant Missions: The Protestant Reformation in Europe was not without influence in Turkey, and some of the highest ecclesiastics of the Orthodox church were more or less in sympathy with it. But the people were too ignorant and too isolated to be reached by any movement from without; and Protestantism was practically 1. General. unknown to them until the establishment of Protestant missions in Turkey, early in the present century. These missions have been confined almost exclusively to the Jews and the Oriental Christians. Thirty-one societies are engaged, including the Church Missionary Society, the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, the London Jews Society, the Established Church of Scotland, the United Free Church of Scotland, the Irish Presbyterian Mission, the Palestine Church Missionary Society, the British Syrian School Society, the Tunicle Turkey Lebanon Schools Committee, the Society for Promoting Female Education in the East. All of these are British organizations; and in addition to these there are several independent enterprises, mostly schools, conducted by the English. The American societies are the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, the Presbyterian Board of Missions, the Reformed Presbyterian Mission, the Christian (Campbellite) Mission, the Society of Friends (American and English). There are also a number of publication societies, both English and American, which have agents in Turkey or work through the missionaries. The most important are the British and Foreign Bible Society, the American Bible Society, the American Tract Society, the London Religious Tract Society. The German missions are the Kaiserswerth Deaconesses, the Krishona Missions, and the Jerusalem Verein. These societies employ about 450 missionaries and assistant missionaries, and about 1,800 native assistants. The whole number of Protestants in Turkey is estimated at 100,000, of whom about 25,000 are communicants. First of these organizations stands the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, which originally represented the Presbyterian, Reformed (Dutch), and Congregational churches of America, but since 1870 only the last. The work of this board in Turkey was commenced in 1819, when two missionaries, Messrs. Fisk and 2. American Parsons, were sent out to begin work Board. at Jerusalem. This mission was never fairly established, but in 1823 the The Syrian mission was commenced at Beirut. Armenian mission was founded at Constantinople in 1831, and the Jewish mission in 1832, the Assyrian mission in 1849, and the Bulgarian in 1858. Several missionaries have at times been appointed to work among the Mohammedans, but without any permanent result. There was a time, after the Crimean war, when the government tolerated work for the Mohammedans and there were a few converts. But in 1865 this toleration ceased, and for the last thirty years it has been impossible for a Moslem to abjure his faith and remain in the country. It remains to be seen how far the religious liberty now promised will be extended to Mohammedans. The board has now four distinct missions in Turkey-the European, Western, Central, and Eastern Turkey missions; and its work is chiefly among the Armenians, Bulgarians, and Greeks. The missionaries at first had no intention of establishing an independent Protestant church in Turkey, but sought rather to reform the existing Christian churches. The peculiar constitution of the Turkish empire, which not only gave civil power to the patriarchs, but treated as an outlaw every person not belonging to some established church, together with the violent animosity of the ecclesiastics against Evangelical teaching, finally forced the missionaries to found a Protestant church, or, more properly, a Protestant civil community, which was recognized by the Porte in 1850, through the influence of England. In 1910 the American Board had in Turkey 354 male and female missionaries. They also supported, wholly or in part, 1,355 native pastors, preachers, teachers, etc. They have 353 stations and sub-stations, with 16,031 communicants. They have 411 schools of all grades, with about 20,000 pupils in all. They have printed and circulated, since the establishment of the missions, over 3,000,000 books. There are seven colleges connected with the missions of the board-at Aintab, Kharpoot, Marsovan, Marash, Tarsus, Smyrna, and Constantinople— with 1,461 students. The colleges at Constantinople and Marash are for girls. The mission to Syria was transferred by the American Board in 1870 to the Presbyterian Church, and reports the following statistics for 1910: missionaries, 38; native laborers, 194; churches, 29; communicants, 2,819; theological and high schools, 9; high schools for girls, 3; common schools, 91; printed from beginning, 23,395,410 3. Other books. The Reformed (Dutch) Church Missions. in America in 1894 adopted a mission which had been started as an independent work in Arabia, about the Persian Gulf. There are thirteen missionaries, and their object is to reach the Mohammedans with the Gospel of our Lord Jesus Christ. The missions to the Jews in Turkey are conducted by the London Jews Society, which has 5 stations, 7 missionaries, 2 medical missionaries, 6 helpers, and 6 schools; the church of Scotland, which has 5 stations, 5 missionaries, 1 medical missionary, 6 helpers, and 6 schools; the Free Church of Scotland, which has 2 stations, 2 missionaries, 2 helpers, and 3 schools. In all there are four organized churches. It is supposed that the wives of the missionaries are not included in these statistics, as they are in those which precede them. The British and Foreign Bible Society has eleven depots and depositories in Turkey, with a central agency at Constantinople. It now employs thirtythree colporteurs. It commenced work 4. Bible in Turkey about 1806. It has circuSocieties. lated the Bible in thirty-five languages, to the number of about 2,500,000 volumes. The American Bible Society has a central agency at Constantinople. Its most important branch is at Beirut; but it operates through all the stations of the American missions. It now employs 50 colporteurs. It circulates the Bible in 26 languages, and the total number of volumes circulated since 1858 is about 750,000. Both of these societies have worked in such close connection with the missionary societies, and have so generally depended upon the missionaries for their translations and for the work of publication, that it is impossible to say exactly how large a proportion of the volumes reported above is included in the statistics already given in connection with the missions. Up to 1858 the missionaries acted as agents of the American Bible Society. Robert College, founded 1863, at Constantinople, and the Syrian Protestant College at Beirut, are independent, endowed institutions, not connected with any missionary society; but they are the fruit of missionary work. Robert College has 45 professors and instructors, and 450 students. Its course of instruction is similar to that of the best American colleges. The Syrian Protestant College has a medical department and a commercial school in addition to its college course, and wa founded in 1866. It has 60 professors and instru tors, and 700 students. These colleges are bot American institutions, and in both the language d instruction is English. Their students represent al most all the languages, religions, and nationaliti of the East. Of late years most of the missions in Turkey ha given prominence to medical work, and a numbe of hospitals have been established & 5. Results. the mission stations. The most im portant connected with American mis sions are at Beirut, Aintab, Cæsarea, Marsovan, Va and Bahrein, and there are dispensaries for medica aid at most of the stations. This work reaches all races and religions, and its influence is constantly increasing. The real influence of Protestant mis sions in Turkey can not be measured by any such statistics as those given above. It has been m only religious, but intellectual, social, and politia It has modified the character of the Oriental churches, and to some extent reformed them. I has carried Western ideas and Christian civilization into the darkest corners of the empire. Many Eng lish statesmen familiar with Turkish affairs hav declared that American missionaries have accom plished more for the regeneration of the East then all other influences combined. Lord Stratford d Redcliffe and Lord Shaftesbury may be mentioned among others, as having expressed this opinion. III. Roman Catholic Missions: Neither the R man Catholic authorities nor the French embassy Constantinople are ready to furnish the statistik of Roman Catholic missions in Turkey; althoug an offer was made to publish what they might fur nish, without note or comment. Without such str tistics, only general statements can be made. Al Roman Catholic missions in Turkey were, unf recently, political agencies of the French Gover ment, and as such received pecuniary aid and diy lomatic support. In return for this they were a pected to propagate and sustain French influend under all circumstances. The principal Rom Catholic organizations in Turkey are the Lazaristo Mechitarists, Franciscans, Dominicans, Capuchins Carmelites, Jesuits, and various organizations 0 Sisters of Charity. For many years past they bar made but little apparent progress in winning verts from other Christian churches, and they ha not attempted to convert Mohammedans. For time the Bulgarians, after their conversion to Ch tianity, inclined toward Rome; but they final united with the Eastern Church; and only a sm body of Paulicians are now Roman Catholics. Sin the commencement of the conflict between the Bu garians and the Greek Patriarch, great efforts bar been made to win the Bulgarians over to Rom and, since the expulsion of the religious orders fr France, this mission has been largely reenforced, & French protection has been offered to converts, pecially in Macedonia. The results have thus been small. In Albania there is a strong Cathe element. Among the Greeks no progress has be made for fifty years. There is a rich and infl tial Armenian Catholic Church in Turkey, whi during the eighteenth century suffered terrible p secution; but this church has during the past few years been distracted by dissensions, growing out of an effort, on the part of Rome, to Latinize it. Several thousand families have gone back to the old Armenian church. Among the Arabic-speaking races, the Roman Catholics have won over many of the Jacobites, control the Maronites of Syria, have some influence among the Greeks and Copts, and of course maintain establishments in Tripoli and Tunis. In addition to the native Roman Catholics, there is all through the empire a large foreign population, which is generally Roman Catholic and contributes to the support of the missions. In fact, much of the influence of this faith in Turkey has always come from the diplomatic, consular, and commercial establishments maintained here by Roman Catholic countries. The native Christians have always been taught to feel, that, in becoming Roman Catholics, they became in some sense Europeans, and shared in some degree the honor and immunities of foreigners. In addition to these social and political advantages afforded to converts, the Roman Catholic missions have founded churches, schools, hospitals, and orphanages, monasteries, convents, and seminaries. Their schools have always been of a low order; but they have taught the French language, and such accomplishments as took the fancy of the people. Until the establishment of Protestant missions, they were, no doubt, the best schools in the country. Of late years, whatever progress has been made has been due chiefly to the work of the Sisters of Charity in hospitals, orphanages, schools, and house-to-house visitation. They are to be found everywhere; and, although generally ignorant and bigoted, they are indefatigable workers, well trained to obedience, self-sacrificing, and wholly devoted to these works of Christian charity. The number of Roman Catholic missionaries in the empire, native and foreign, male and female, including the ecclesiastics of the native Roman Catholic churches, can not be less than 3,000. There is no means of estimating the annual expenditure, but the Roman Catholic missions have certainly been more successful than the Protestant in "living on the country.' They depend much less, in proportion to their numbers, upon foreign aid. It is not easy for a Protestant to form an estimate of the success of Roman Catholic missions. They have no doubt planted the church so firmly in this empire that it can stand by itself without foreign aid; but they have done nothing toward converting the Mohammedans, and have made no progress in winning over the oriental churches to a union with Rome. They have not essentially weakened these churches, nor have they made converts enough to enter into any rivalry with them. GEORGE WASHBURN. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the literature under ARMENIA; STRIA; and SYRIAN CHURCH, consult on the history and life: J. W. Zinkeisen, Geschichte des osmanischen Reiches in Europa, 7 vols., Hamburg, 1840-63; J. L. Farley, Modern Turkey, London, 1872; idem, Turks and Christians, ib. 1876; J. Baker, Turkey in Europe, ib. 1877; T. Milner, The Turkish Empire; Sultan, Territory and People, ib. 1877; E. L. Clark, The Races of European Turkey, Edinburgh, 1878; idem, Turkey, New York, 1883; E. J. Davies, Life in Asiatic Turkey, London, 1879; J. Creagh, Armenians, Koords, and Turks, 2 vols., ib. 1880; H. F. Tozer, Turkish Armenia and Eastern Asia Minor, ib. 1881; J. M. N. Brodhead, Slav and Moslem, Historical Sketches, Aiken, 1894; S. L. Poole, The Mohammedan Dynasties, Westminster, 1894; R. Davey, The Sultan and his Subjects, New York, 1897; Mrs. W. M. Ramsay, Everyday Life in Turkey, London, 1903; L. M. Garnett, Turkish Life in Town and Country, London and New York, 1904; idem, Turkey of the Ottomans, ib. 1911; M. Sykes, Dar-ul-Islam: a Record of a Journey through ten of the Asiatic Provinces of Turkey, New York, 1904; W. S. Monroe, Turkey and the Turks. An Account of the Lands, Peoples and Institutions of the Ottoman Empire, Boston, 1907, London, 1908; G. F. Abbot, Turkey in Transition, New York, 1909; L. Collas, Histoire de l'empire ottoman jusqu'à la révolution de 1909, Paris, 1910. And on missions and churches: The Star in the East; Quarterly Record of the Progress of Christian Missions within the Turkish Empire, London, 1883; Hilaire, La France catholique en orient durant les trois derniers siècles, Paris, 1902; E. von Mülinen, Die lateinische Kirche im türkischen Reiche, 2d ed., Some Berlin, 1903; W. A. Essery, The Ascending Cross. Results of Missions in Bible Lands, London, 1905; J. E. H., One Hundred Syrian Pictures, Illustrating the Work of the Syrian Mission, ib. 1903; C. Lagier, Byzance et Stamboul: nos droits français et nos missions en orient, Paris, 1905; N. Jorga, Geschichte des osmanischen Reiches, 3 vols., Gotha, 1907-10; J. L. Barton, Daybreak in Turkey, Boston, 1909. TURLUPINS: A medieval sect akin to the Beghards (q.v.), like whom they called themselves "the fellowship of poverty." The origin and meaning of the derisi ve epithet "Turlupins are obscure. They seem to have been especially numerous in Paris and the province of Isle-de-France during the reign of Charles V. (1364–80), while in 1460-65 they were in the vicinity of Lille. According to their tenets, which are known only from their opponents, “inward prayer was the sole religious duty. They carried their endeavor to imitate apostolic poverty to such an extreme that they went almost naked. In their gatherings, which were secret, they are said to have laid aside all their garments to symbolize paradise, and it is also said that they held that those who had reached a certain stage of perfection could no longer sin, and might indulge sensual impulses without hesitation. The Inquisition proceded unsparingly against the Turlupins, and Gregory XI. praised the king for his zeal against them, but they did not entirely disappear from France until the second half of the fifteenth century. (EUGEN LACHENMANN.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Gerson, Opera, ed. Du Pin, Antwerp, 1706; J. Hermant, Hist. des hérésies, iv. 374, Rouen, 1726; P. Frederica, Corpus documentorum inquisitionis Neerlandica, i. 409–412, The Hague, 1889; H. C. Lea, History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages, ii. 126, 158, New York, 1906; KL, xii. 147–148. TURNER, ARTHUR BERESFORD: Church of England bishop of Korea; b. at Farley (4 m. e. of Salisbury), Wiltshire, Aug. 24, 1862. He was educated at Keble College, Oxford (B.A., 1885), and After was ordained to the priesthood in 1888. being curate of Watlington, Oxfordshire (1887–89), Downton, Salisbury (1889-92), and St. Nicholas Cathedral, Newcastle-on-Tyne (1892-96), he was a missionary in Korea (q.v.) from 1896 till 1905, when he was consecrated bishop of that country. TURNER, FRANCIS: Church of England bishop; b. probably at Fecham, Surrey, c. 1638; d. in London Nov. 2, 1700. He was educated at Winchester and at New College, Oxford (B.A., 1659; M.A, |