of the plague; indefinitely prorogued, Sept. 17, 1549; reopened at Trent, May 1, 1551, by Pope Julius III.; broken up by the sudden victory of Elector Maurice of Saxony over the Emperor Charles V., and his march into Tyrol, Apr. 28, 1552; and recalled by Pius IV. for the last time, Jan. 18, 1562, when it continued to its final adjournment, Dec. 4, 1563. It closed with "Anathema to all heretics, anathema, anathema." The history of the council is divided into three distinct periods; from 1545 to 1549, from 1551 to 1552, and from 1562 to 1563. The last was the most important. The number of attending members in the three periods varied considerably. It increased toward the close, but never reached the number of the first ecumenical council at Nicea (which had 318 members), nor of the last of the Vatican (which numbered 764). The decrees were signed by 255 members, including four papal legates, two cardinals, three patriarchs, twenty-five archbishops, 168 bishops, two-thirds of them being Italians. Lists of the signers are added to the best editions of the decrees. England was represented by Cardinal Reginald Pole, Richard Pate, bishop of Worcester, and after 1562 by Thomas Goldwell, bishop of St. Asaph; Ireland by three bishops, and Germany at no time by more than eight. The Italian and Spanish prelates were vastly preponderant in power and numbers. At the passage of the most important decrees not more than sixty prelates were present.

The object of the council was twofold: (1) to condemn the principles and doctrines of Protestantism, and to define the doctrines of the. 2. Objects Roman Catholic Church on all disand puted points. It is true the emperor General intended it to be a strictly general or Results. truly ecumenical council, at which the Protestants should have a fair hearing. He secured, during the council's second period, 1551-52, an invitation, twice given, to the Protestants to be present, and the council issued a letter of safe-conduct (thirteenth session) and offered them the right of discussion, but denied them a vote. Melanchthon and Johann Brenz (qq.v.), with some other German Lutherans, actually started in 1552 on the journey to Trent. Brenz offered a confession, and Melanchthon, who got no farther than Nuremberg, took with him the irenic statement known as the Confessio Saxonica. But the refusal to give to the Protestants the right to vote and the consternation produced by the success of Maurice in his campaign against Charles V. in 1552 effectually put an end to Protestant cooperation. (2) To effect a reformation in discipline or administration. This object had been one of the causes calling forth the reformatory councils, and had been lightly touched upon by the Fifth Lateran under Julius II. and Leo X. The corrupt administration of the Church was one of the secondary causes of the Reformation. Twenty-five public sessions were held, but nearly half of them were spent in solemn formalities. The chief work was done in committees or congregations. The entire management was in the hands of the papal legates. The court of Rome, by diplomacy and intrigue, outwitted all the liberal

elements. The council abolished some cry abuses, and introduced or recommended discip the doctrines of purgatory, the invocation of ary reforms affecting the sale of indulgences, saints, and the worship of relics are reaffirmed, morals of convents, the education of the clergy, as also the efficacy of indulgences as dispensed non-residence of bishops, and the careless fulmi by the Church according to the power given tion of censures, and forbade the duel. These her, but with some cautionary recommendations. liverances had a salutary influence on the chur The council appointed, 1562 (eighteenth session), But in regard to the department of doctrine, a commission to prepare a list of forbidden books though liberal evangelical sentiments were utte (Index librorum prohibitorum), but it later left the by some of the ablest members in favor of the matter to the action of the pope. The preparation preme authority of the Scriptures, and justificat of a catechism and revised editions of the Breviary by faith, no concession whatever was made and Missal were also left to the pope. Protestantism. The doctrinal decisions of t On adjourning, the synod begged the supreme council are divided into decrees (decreta), w pontiff to ratify all its decrees and definitions. This contain the positive statement of the Roman & petition was complied with by Pius IV., Jan. 26, mas, and into short canons (canones), which 1564, in a bull which enjoins strict obedience upon demn the dissenting Protestant views with thee all Roman Catholics, and forbids, under pain of cluding "anathema sit." They are stated excommunication, all unauthorized interpretation, great clearness, precision, and wisdom. The de reserving this to the pope alone, and threatening on justification betrays special ability and th the disobedient with "the indignation of Almighty logical circumspection. The Protestant doctrin God and of his blessed apostles, Peter and Paul." however, are almost always exhibited in an e Pius appointed a commission of cardinals to assist gerated form, and mixed up with real heres him in interpreting and enforcing the decrees. The which Protestants condemn as emphatically ast Index librorum prohibitorum was announced 1564, Church of Rome. and the following books were issued with the papal The doctrinal acts are as follows: after reaffi imprimatur: the Profession of the Tridentine ing the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed (third Faith and the Tridentine Catechism (1566), the sion), the decree was passed (fourth session) pla Breviary (1568), the Missal (1570), and the Vulthe Apocrypha on a par with the other book gate (1590, and then 1592). The decrees of the the canon and coordinating chu council were acknowledged in Italy, Portugal, Po3. The tradition with the Scriptures as a land, and by the Roman Catholic princes of GerCanons and of faith. The Vulgate translation; many at the diet of 1566. Philip II. accepted them Decrees. affirmed to be authoritative for: for Spain, Netherland, and Sicily so far as they did text of Scripture. Justification (not infringe on the royal prerogative. In France session) was declared to be offered upon the & they were officially recognized by the king only in of faith and good works as opposed to the Prd their doctrinal parts. The disciplinary sections retant doctrine of faith alone, and faith was tre ceived official recognition at provincial synods and as a progressive work. The sacramental chara were enforced by the bishops. No attempt was of the seven sacraments was affirmed and made to introduce it into England. Pius IV. sent eucharist pronounced a veritable propitiatory the decrees to Mary, queen of Scots, with a letter rifice as well as a sacrament, in which the br dated June 13, 1564, requesting her to publish them and wine were converted into the body and in Scotland; but she dared not do it in the face of of Christ (thirteenth and twenty-second sessie John Knox and the Reformation.

bk

It is to be offered for dead and living alike and The canons and decrees of the council have been giving to the apostles the command "do this Published very often and in many languages (for a large list consult British Museum Catalogue, under remembrance of me," Christ conferred upon "Trent, Council of "). The first issue a sacerdotal power. The practise of withhol the cup from the laity was confirmed (twenty 4. Publica- was by P. Manutius (Rome, 1564). tion of The best Latin editions are by J. Le session) as one which the Church had comman Documents. Plat (Antwerp, 1779), and by F. from of old for good and sufficient reasons; ye Schulte and A. L. Richter (Leipsic,

certain cases the pope was made the supreme $1853). Other good editions are in vol. vii. of the ter as to whether the rule should be strictly Acta et decreta conciliorum recentiorum. Collectio tained. Ordination (twenty-third session) Lacensis (7 vols., Freiburg, 1870-90), reissued as given an indelible character. The priesthood an independent volume (1892); Concilium Tridenthe New Testament takes the place of the Levittinum: Diariorum, actorum, epistularum, colpriesthood. To the performance of its func lectio, ed. S. Merkle (4 vols., Freiburg, 1901 sqq.; the consent of the people is not necessary. I only vols. i.-iv. have as yet appeared); not to overdecrees on marriage (twenty-fourth session) look Mansi, Concilia, xxxv. 345 sqq. Note also excellence of the celibate state was reaffirmed, Mirbt, Quellen, 2d ed, pp. 202–255. The best Engcubinage condemned, and the validity of marlish edition is by J. Waterworth (London, 1848; made dependent upon its being performed bWith Essays on the External and Internal History of a priest and two witnesses. In the case the Council). The original acts and debates of the divorce the right of the innocent party to council, as prepared by its general secretary, Bishop again is denied so long as the guilty Angelo Massarelli, in six large folio volumes, are is alive, even though the other have commdeposited in the Vatican library, and remained adultery. In the twenty-fifth and last sesthere unpublished for more than 300 years, and

Trent, Council of

were brought to light, though only in part, by Augustin Theiner, priest of the oratory (d. 1874), in Acta genuina sancti et œcumenici Concilii Tridentini nunc primum integre edita (2 vols., Leipsic, 1874). Most of the official documents and private reports, however, which bear upon the council, were made known in the sixteenth century and since. The most complete collection of them is that of J. Le Plat, Monumentorum ad historiam Concilii Tridentini collectio (7 vols., Louvain, 1781-87). New materials were brought to light by J. Mendham, Memoirs of the Council of Trent (London, 1834-36), from the manuscript history of Cardinal Paleotto; more recently by T. Sickel, Actenstücke aus österreichischen Archiven (Vienna, 1872); by J. J. I. von Döllinger (Ungedruckte Berichte und Tagebücher zur Geschichte des Concilii von Trient (2 parts, Nördlingen, 1876); and A. von Druffel, Monumenta Tridentina (Munich, 1884-97). See also TRIDENTINE PROFESSION OF FAITH.

(P. SCHAFFT.) D. S. SCHAFF. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fundamental for the history of the council are the accounts by two Roman Catholics of very different spirit: (1) that of the liberal Fra Paolo [Pietro] Sarpi of Venice, Istoria del Concilio Tridentino, London, 1619, often republished, e.g., 4 vols., Florence, 1858, best ed. by P. F. Le Courayer, 3 vols., Amsterdam, 1751, in French, 2 vols., London, 1736, Eng. transl. of the original by Sir N. Brent, London, 1619, and another, 1876, Germ, working over of the matter by D. J. T. L. Danz, Jena, 1846; (2) that of Cardinal Sforza Pallavicino, Istoria del Concilio di Trento, 2 vols., Rome, 1656-57, issued also Rome, 1665, Milan, 1717, Lat. transl. by J. B. Giattino, 3 parts, Antwerp, 1870, Fr. transl., 3 vols., Montrouge, 1844-45 (for criticism of these cf. Ranke, Popes, iii. 46-79; and J. N. Brischar, Beurtheilung der Controversen Sarpi's und Pallavicini's in der Geschichte des Trienter Concils, Tubingen, 1844). Further accounts or discussions are: C. A. Salig, Hist. des tridentinischen Conciliums, 3 vols., Halle, 1741-45 (Protestant); I. H. Wessenberg, Die grossen Kirchenversammlung des 15, und 16. Jahrhunderten, Constance, 1840 (Roman Catholic); L. F. Bungener, Hist. du concile de Trente, 2 vols., Paris, 1847, Eng. transl., 2d ed., Edinburgh, 1853, New York, 1855 (Protestant); T. A. Buckley, Hist. of the Council of Trent, London, 1852; idem, The Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent, with a Supplement, containing the Condemnation of the Early Reformers, and other Matters, ib. 1851 (Protestant); W. C. Brownlee, Doctrinal Decrees and Canons of the Council of Trent, with Preface and Notes, New York, 1857 (Roman Catholic); E. B. Pusey, Eirenicon, Oxford, 1865 (Protestant); W. Arthur, The Pope, the Kings, and the People, 2 vols., London, 1877 (one of the best); J. C. L. Gieseler, Text-Book of Church History, ed. H. B. Smith, v. 21-58, New York, 1880 (excellent sketch); C. Dejob, De l'influence du concile de Trente sur la littérature et les beaux-arts, Paris, 1884; D. Lainez, Disputationes Tridentina, 2 vols., Innsbruck, 1886 (Roman Catholic); T. R. Evans, Council of Trent, London, 1888 (Protestant polemic); R. F. Littledale, Hist. of the Council of Trent, London, 1888 (Protestant); J. A. Froude, Lectures on the Council of Trent, London, 1896 (posthumous; Protestant, brilliant but partisan, and as issued in unrevised shape unreliable); G. Wolf, Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Gegenreformation, Berlin, 1899; A. R. Pennington, Counter-Reformation in Europe, London, 1901; J. G. Mayer, Das Konzil von Trent und die Gegenreformation in der Schweiz, 2 vols., Stans, 1900-01; J. Susta, Die römische Curie und das Concil von Trient, Vienna, 1904; Cambridge Modern History, vol. iii. passim, New York, 1905; R. Mumm, Die Polemik des Martin Chemnitz gegen das Konzil von Trient, Leipsic, 1905; J. Hergenrother, Handbuch der allgemeinen Kirchengeschichte, ed. J. P. Kirsch, Freiburg, 1909 (Roman Catholic); J. Hesner, Die Entstehungsgeschichte des Trienter Rechtfertigungsdekretes, Paderborn, 1909; L. Carcereri, Il Concilio di Trento, Bologna, 1910; Die römische Kurie und das Konzil von Trient unter Pius IV., Vienna, 1911;

Ranke, Popes, i. 100–267; Schaff, Creeds, i. 90–100, ii. 77-210. Discussions are to be found also in the works on the history of doctrine by Harnack, vols. iv.-vii. passim; F. Loofs, pp. 664-676, Halle, 1908; R. Seeberg, ii. 422-440, Leipsic, 1895-98; and J. Schwane, Freiburg, 1890.

TRESPASS OFFERING. See SACRIFICE.

TRESSLER, VICTOR GEORGE AUGUSTINE: Lutheran; b. Somerfield, Pa., Apr. 10, 1866. He was educated at Pennsylvania College, Gettysburg, Pa. (B.A., 1886), McCormick Theological Seminary (1891), and the University of Leipsic (Ph.D., 1900). He was ordained to the Lutheran ministry in 1892, and was pastor of Grace Lutheran Church, San José, Cal., from 1891 to 1898, besides being lecturer in history in San José Academy in 1896-98 and president of the Lutheran Synod of California in 1896-97. He was dean and professor of philosophy in Ansgar College, Hutchinson, Minn., in 1901–02, and professor of Greek in Wittenberg College, Springfield, O., in 1903-05, and since 1905 has been professor of New-Testament philology and criticism in Hamma Divinity School, Springfield. He is the author of The Political Revolution under Elizabeth (1901).

TREVES, ARCHBISHOPRIC OF: Probably the oldest German diocese. Christianity seems to have been established in the ancient Gallic city of the same name as early as the second century, though it was not until the reign of Constantine that the faith made rapid progress. [Tradition reports, however, that Eucharius, Valerius, and Maternus were sent by Peter the Apostle to preach in the valley of the Rhine, and that Eucharius was the first bishop of Treves, occupying the episcopal chair for twenty-five years.] In the fifth century the Roman hall of justice at Treves was transformed into the church now preserved in the cathedral, though it was not until the end of the Roman period, late in the fifth century, that the city became predominantly Christian. The origin of the diocese is lost in obscurity, for the reputed disciples of Peter, namely, Eucharius, Valerius, and Maternus, are creations of legend. The first certain bishop was

I. Tribal Mysteries.

Definitions (§ 1).

Basal Factors (§ 2).

Agroetius, who attended the Synod of Arles in His successors, Maximinus and Paulinus, ail Athanasius against the Arians, though it is unt tain whether they were metropolitans. The ture of Treves by the Franks, who soon beca Christianized, made no interruption in the episc line, for at the very time of the struggle Bid Jamblichus (c. 457) is mentioned, and his suc sors, Nicetius (after 527), Magnericus (570-5 and others were of metropolitan rank. This digni however, was lost during the confusion toward close of the Merovingian period, but was resta by Charlemagne before 811, and retained the early part of the nineteenth century. The cese comprised the territory on both sides of Mosel, from the present boundary with Prussia Lorraine to the entrance of the river into the R and, across the Rhine, a small strip of land on banks of the Lahn to a point above Wetzlar. Mɛ Toul, and Verdun were suffragan bishoprics.

(A. HAUCK

The reason for treating these together will be found from the discussion which follows to rest upon an actual genetic relationship and upon a real resemblance in aim, allowance being made for the difference in the grade of culture reached. The reason for discussing the subject at all is its fundamental importance not only in religion but in society, these institutions having had much to do with molding the social, ethical, and religious life of the peoples among which they have existed.

2. Basal Factors.

The two bases in nature of the institution here called tribal mysteries are (1) the ineffaceable distinction of sex, the female being almost universally regarded in primitive society as the inferior and therefore limited in nattural privileges; and (2) the distinction, effaceable by age, of the boy BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are: J. N. von Hontheim, H from the man, the former being classed in society Trevirensium diplomatum, 3 vols., Augsburg, 1750; with the women. Initiation marks the formal sepProdromus historia Trevirensis, 2 vols., ib. 1757; & diplomaticus Rheno-Mosellanus, ed. W. Günther, 5 aration of the boy from social classification with Coblenz, 1822-26; Urkundenbuch zur Geschichte de women and from tutelage by them, together with mittelrheinischen Territorien, ed. H. Beyer and othe release from the disabilities which that classificavols., ib. 1860-74; MGH, Dip., i (1872); Diploma tion imposes and the assumption of the rights and gum et imperatorum Germaniæ, 3 vols., Hanover, 1879-1 F. X. Kraus, Die christlichen Inschriften der Rhein duties of manhood, or, at any rate, the taking of 2 parts, nos. 75-255, Freiburg, 1890; Gesta Trevi the first steps toward that assumption. But among in MGH, Script., viii (1848), 111 sqq., xxiv (1879), primitive peoples in probably most cases the disBqq., and Series archiepiscoporum Treverensium, in tinction between man and boy not being regarded same, xiii (1881), 296 sqq.; A. Görz, Regesten der. bischöfen von Trier, 2 vols., Treves, 1859-61. Ca as erased by age alone, ceremonial must come to the further: J. Marx, Geschichte des Erzstifts Trier, 5 aid of nature. An unitiated male, even though Treves, 1858-64; J. Wegler, Richard von Greiffe aged, is classed with the women and rests under Erzbischof und Kurfürst von Trier, 1511-31, ib. their tribal disabilities (A. W. Howitt, Native Tribes F. Ferdinand, Cuno von Falkenstein als Erzbischo Trier, 1377, Paderborn, 1886; S. Beissel, Geschicht of South-Eastern Australia, p. 530, London, 1904). Trierer Kirchen, Treves, 1887; P. de Lorenzi, Be It is quite in accordance with primitive logic that zur Geschichte der Pfarreien der Diözese Trier, 2 vol the ceremonial should have the two characteristics 1887; K. Schorn, Eiflia sacra, 2 vols., Bonn, 188 of secrecy and an ordeal. The change from boyhunderts, Treves, 1889; J. Mohr, Die Heiligen der Di hood to manhood involves the power to procreate, Trier, ib. 1892; E. Vogt, Die Reichspolitik des Erzb and before the mystery of new life the savage Balduin von Trier in den Jahren 1328-34, Gotha, stands in awe. It is in his mind related with the and the KD of Rettberg, Friedrich, and Hauck. power of spirits, therefore within the realm of reTREVES, HOLY COAT OF. See HOLY Cos ligion; the favor of these spirits and the successful use of the powers of manhood depend upon a certain correctness of procedure, hence it comes with.in the domain also of primitive magic. In both of these regions there rule the ideas which under the Romans came to be expressed as sacra and profana, involving the participation in certain rites by defi

H. V. Sauerland, Trierer Geschichtsquellen des XI

Developments of Tribal Societies (§ 3).

Social Character (§ 4).

Magical Fraternities (§ 5).

The "Men's House" (§ 6).
Methods of Initiation (§ 7).
Educational Value (§ 8).

Influence on Social Development (§9).

66

I. Tribal Mysteries: A mystery is defined by Miss Jane Ellen Harrison (Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, p. 151, 2d ed., Cambridge, 1908) as a rite in which certain sacra are exhibited which can not be safely seen by the worshiper till he has undergone certain purifications." This holds true both for tribal and cultic mysteries. Primitive peoples restrain non-initiates from sight of sacra for the reasons that such sight is a breach

1. Definitions.

The Mysteries Proper ($7).
Essentials and Sacra (§ 8).

Officials (§ 9).
Significance (§ 10).

2. Dionysiac-Orphic Mysteries. Character of Dionysiac Celeb

(§ 1).

Significance of Orpheus (§

Orphic Teachings (§ 3).
Summary (§ 4).

2).

en 韶

nite classes and the exclusion from them of other classes. Because of the assumed inferiority of the women, on account of their natural disabilities as conceived by primitive logic, they and all who were classed with them could not participate in or even witness the ceremonial which began the transformation of the boy into the man. The adult males of taboo which (they suppose) would bring alone were possessed of knowledge of the means by the tribe, and punish such breach in order which aspirants to adult male rights could attain purgate the crime and relieve the tribe of the those rights, or, to express the idea in other words, of guilt and the evil consequences supposed could become members of the tribe in full standing, sult from the transgression. By tribal my sharing by favor of the spirits in its government are meant those rites of initiation of boys (and in such duties as fell to the men. Hence it was some regions of girls) at the time of reaching the initiated adult males and the candidates alone hood (or womanhood) into the rights of who might be present either to participate in or to

| ship as conceived by the tribe, together with later developments, coming with advance in

Trespass Offering

Tribal and Cultic Mysteries

witness the initiation, and in many cases only the elders, those retired from such services as fighting and the like, conducted the ceremonies. Further, because the initiation marked the admission of the candidate to manhood with its responsibilities, the rites most often assumed the character of an ordeal which aimed to test his qualifications for the rank to which he aspired. Once more, because the successful passing of the ordeal involved ultimate eligibility to marriage, rites were performed looking to the married state, such as Circumcision (q.v.) and sometimes subincision.

It follows directly from the foregoing that the tribe divides into two broad sections, the initiated

(males) and the women and non-initi3. Develop-ates. The former constitute what is ments of to all intents and purposes a secret Tribal society. Secrecy is enforced by a Societies. series of taboos, the breach of which involves severe penalties. Thus over

a wide area including Australia the sight of a bullroarer * by a woman subjects her to death. The matter which is kept secret varies with the tribe, but may be described in general terms as the rites of initiation and the methods of performing them, including the masks, disguises of the performers, the dances, and the songs which constitute part of the ceremonies, as well as the traditional significance of them all. The broad division of tribal members into two classes gives place as social order advances into a more complex system which works out in three ways: (1) It may split up into societies in which there are various degrees with admission from one to another and rising in importance and prestige. The basal distinction here is age; but the number of degrees or other distinguishing characteristics varies with the tribe or people. The influence of the individual in the tribe generally depends upon his advancement through and status in the various grades. (2) On the other hand, the society may become intertribal, like the totem gens, and the occasion of initiation, often becoming stated, is an affair not of a single tribe alone, but of the initiates and candidates of the several tribes thus affiliated. The effect of this in the direction of social development will be seen at once. It is wholly natural that at such assemblages intertribal matters be discussed, occasions of dispute be talked over, and that causes that might lead to war, to say nothing of individual differences, may be so considered as to lead to complete pacification. At such times an intertribal peace prevails under penalty of death for its breach. The immediate consequences are a decided advance in social structure and ethical well-being. (3) The third method of development is into what may be described as the magical fraternity, the total .re

* A bull-roarer is a piece of wood carved in the shape of an elongated rhomboid or modification of that form, attached by one end to a string, and swung rapidly around the head by the string, producing a peculiar and very penetrating sound. It was used by the Greeks and by them called a rhombos. The sound made by this instrument is often the signal that puberty rites are being or are about to be celebrated and that the profane are to remain at a distance and out of sight. The exhibition of the instrument is usually an invitation or a command to attend the ceremonies.

sults of which are often the reverse of good in their effects upon the social organization.

The initiations being of moment to the tribe, they are celebrated as occasions of festivity which appeal to every initiated member. The materials for the festivities are provided in part by the 4. Social fathers of the candidates, in part by Character. the tribe at large. As culture advances, the number of the initiated comes to be less than all the males of the tribe. In the case where centralization of power in the hands of the chief has not developed, where the government is rather by elders, the ideal fostered by the mysteries is strongly that of fidelity to the tribe as represented by the elders, who conduct the ceremonies in the presence of the initiates. Where centralization has occurred, a less democratic organization may arise, various secret societies may form, more or less limited in membership and with different demands for qualification on the part of aspirants to membership. In these cases the ceremonies may grow in complexity and impressiveness, and the religious element is often more stressed, so that these become largely the guardian of religion. In such a situation puberty ceremonies become more curtailed and do not carry with them membership in the societies. These more aristocratic organizations involve not universal obligation, as do the most primitive type, but special privilege, the obtaining of which requires not only the suffrage of members, but also no slight expenditure, which in turn secures such a degree of consideration in the tribe as seems quite commensurate with the difficulty and expense attendant. The performance of the rites still required at puberty devolves upon the higher grades in the societies, each of which grades has its own ceremony of initiation possibly performed at considerable intervals. Entrance into these, therefore, becomes a desideratum to the ambitious. Where this stage of civilization is reached, the separation of the boy from his parents may take place at as early an age as five years, and the course of instruction and service to the tribe may last till he is forty or till his father dies and he enters upon his inheritance. In the tribal societies the simplicity and naïveté of primitive faith dies, and self-seeking enters in with an almost inevitable duplicity and deceit, advancing to extortion and governing by oppression and even murder, as in the interior of Africa. In cases not a few the tribal society becomes a means of perpetuating the power of the elders and of securing for them an easy support in their old age. Necessarily, the conditions described in the preceding paragraphs tend to die out with progress in culture, the mysteries may come to be no secret, and the proscribed classes may obtain admission at any rate as witnesses. Among the North American Indians, who are in this stage, the institution of initiation has as its central feature the lonely puberty watch of the candidate, who under the stress of fasting and mental effort dreams of an animal or spirit which thus becomes his guardian genius. Still, the fraternities which are associated with this stage evidently often perpetuate the principal religious beliefs and ceremonies of earlier conditions.

With the belief in the virtue of magic invaria among primitive peoples, it is not strange th magical fraternities should form ab 5. Magical the rites of initiation, and that Fraternities. ceremonies should not seldom co to have association with the purp of securing success in hunting and agricultu One of the fundamental ideas of initiation is CO rectness of one's status with respect to marria (and therefore the obtaining of progeny). In prix tive logic the step from this end to considerati of the means of living is a short one. Mime magic is resorted to for success in various unde takings, as in the buffalo dance of the Indians (( Catlin, Report of Smithsonian. Institution for 188 ii. 309-311, Washington, 1886). And as dece ancestors are supposed to have power for good ill in the directions of increase of progeny and the fruits of the chase and of toil, it is not stra that societies form around the cult of ancestor

to it news is brought which is of importance to the tribe. The area where the "men's house " is known to have existed within the modern period is essentially conterminous with the regions inhabited by primitive peoples in Asia, Oceanica, the New World, and rarely in Australia.

Inasmuch as the reason for the existence of the mysteries is in general the induction of the pubescent youth into the rights and proper manner of

performing the duties of manhood,

7. Methods there is involved preparation for marof riage in certain ways deemed necesInitiation. sary by peoples in that stage of civilization. The particular methods depend upon the traditions, usages, and ideas of the tribe, group of tribes, or people. The practises that preVail imply two salient ideas: (1) the ordeal, involving much of severe pain, physical and mental, and suffering that may and sometimes does terIn many societies the dead are regarded as me establishes the right of the candidate to admission minate fatally, while successful passing of the trial bers still active though unseen. Such organization to the ranks of warriors, or at least to such instrucin this way bound to the past yet actively ink tion as will fit him for that status; (2) instruction ested in present welfare, become repositories in the manner of performing the duties, religious tradition, creators of secret ritual, and protect and social, which the new position involves. Very of such rude poetic art as exists under such con often the ordeal involves mutilations which are tions. On the other hand, they may and do permanent, and supposedly may serve the triple generate and become the centers of orgies & purpose of marks that prove the fact of initiation practises too horrible to describe, especially and the right to manhood's privileges, of testing Africa, where the worst results of this species the aspirant's courage and power to endure pain domination are found. In short, the phenome without complaint and even with indifference, and attending the initiation into the mysteries am in the most common rite (that of circumcision) of primitives illustrate both the noblest and fitting the candidate for the duties of marriage. At meanest qualities of humanity. They have the time of initiation the boys are taken from the tributed both to the uplift and to the degenerati women and girls, occasionally assuming a particuof peoples, and exhibit the lofty and worthy aspi lar garb indicative of their candidateship. They tions of man as well as his most lamentable faili are conducted to the men's encampment or men's In the most primitive conditions and when tri house (see above, § 6); in some cases the surrender are migratory, no exact location other than of the boys by the women is the occasion of cereplace apart from the tribal camp monies that are dramatic and impressive, and emfixed for the ceremonies. In th phasize the new status to which the boys aspire. circumstances it is usual for the bad After their separation the boys are instructed by lors and boys to camp apart from precept and often by ceremonial, are told that they place where the families are set have passed from childhood and its ways, and that for the time being. The rites are in a still more their place is henceforth with the men, from whom tired location, guarded from intrusion by them they are to receive the lessons in war or hunting of the bull-roarer or other instrument, the so or other duties which are to make them worthy of which indicates that the ceremonies are in pr members of society. The novice after initiation is Where settled habitations are the rule, supposed to be a new being. Quite generally his separation of the sexes already referred to death and resurrection are dramatically represented. brought about in many communities the establ In the light of more developed institutions it is eviment of the "men's house." This is usually dent that this ceremonial is a crude way of expressmost conspicuous structure in the place, and ing purification; the fundamental notion is not almission to it is denied to the non-initiates, or together foreign to the Pauline idea "dead to sin' least to those not eligible to initiation. There (Rom. vi. 2). It is not impossible that under hypunmarried males may live, or at the most sk notic influence the candidate actually believes that their separation from the women necessitating he has died and come again to life. The women participation in family life. This house beca either hold this belief or feign it. The candidates the center and locus of the mysteries, and as are daubed with filth, mud, powder, or gypsum, and velopment proceeds, societies and fraternities the removal of this is symbolic of the casting off it their home. With the multiplication of frate of that which had separated them from the full ties, there may be several of these houses in a measure of manhood. Sometimes they are believed munity. This house serves the purpose also of to pass away and to be reborn. Indeed, it is often cil house, may answer the uses of the modern startling to find the very arcana of Christianity anor may even become the center of defense in cas ticipated in the rites and beliefs and even the words attack. Celebrations take place in or before it,' of Australian or primitive American savages. The

6. The "Men's House."

ress.

I

Tribal and Cultic Mysteries

period of seclusion varies from a few days to a year, often on scanty, even repulsive, rations. The fact of the new birth or resurrection is signalized by the reception of a new and (it may be) secret name (this feature continues in the cultic mysteries; cf. also Rev. ii. 17 and often, for that book lays great emphasis upon the new name), and even by acquiring a new and mystic language. The initiates may pretend that they have lost all their former stock of knowledge. Over a large area, besides the mutilations already named, depilation, tattooing, painting, boring of nose, lip, or ear, loss of one or more teeth (generally incisors), scorching by fire, drinking of blood, or heavy floggings may serve as accompaniments. Especially is much made of the exhibition of certain paraphernalia, such as the instruments of noise and certain symbolic articles which vary in different surroundings, but may not be spoken of in mixed company.

in

The instruction during the period of seclusion is in general, even among the rudest tribes, of a character which must astonish by its salutariness those who suppose that with a high grade of civilization alone are developed the moralities, especially those concerning sex and property. Alto8. Educa- gether outside of what pertains to tional every-day necessities (which in this Value. type of society include besides the ways of obtaining food by hunting and fishing, as well as its preparation, also the art and methods of war), there is the education of the boys in conduct toward women which is not a whit lower than is involved by standards of sexual morality enlightened "lands. By inculcation of sheer self-control a restraint upon indulgence is achieved which more pretentious grades of culture accomplish only through the seclusion of women. And the task of self-control is made the more difficult because of the system of taboo and the restrictions imposed by the rules which complicate the ideas of relationship and prevent intermarriage between certain classes within the tribe. So the candidate receives instruction regarding the choice of a wife which may legally be made, and is charged to keep strictly within those lines. He is cautioned against promiscuity and unchastity (though in a few regions the period of initiation is followed by a sort of orgy). He is taught the necessity of obedience to the elders, of fidelity to tribal obligations, is instructed in the geography of the tribal possessions and the necessity in the public interest of remaining within the tribal boundaries. The qualities of truthfulness, justness, honesty, generosity, kindness to the weak, filial regard, courage, good judgment are enjoined, while even the principle of eugenics from the viewpoint of tribal advantage is emphasized. Fidelity to the tribe is urged through the impartation of its history and its relations with other tribes, and the native games, songs, and dances (having religious purport); the secrets and obligations of the system of totems and taboos are also communicated. Through the advice coming from the elders around the camp-fire after the daily labors are ended, the admiration and regard of the youth are won, the feeling of brotherhood is fostered, and a sobering effect is produced. So pronounced are these effects

that taken together they almost warrant the fiction of a new birth. This course of instruction may continue over a considerable period-among the Masai of Africa until the age of forty. And the ceremonial has further value in that it requires legitimate membership in the tribe, the children of illegitimate intercourse not being eligible. It involves also a degree of economical forethought in that the parent must have sufficient property to contribute to the feast customary at the mysteries. Those who are barred by disabilities are placed in so inferior a position that the effects can hardly be appreciated by more advanced peoples. Loyalty to the elders and fellow tribesmen and self-interest combine to the perpetuation of the mysteries and the preservation of their secrets, while a useful tribal solidarity is not the least of the benefits. Qualities of real service in the way of character, amid much that is superstitious and harmful, even base, are fostered by this institution.

ment.

Impartial study of tribal mysteries, the merest outlines of which are sketched in the preceding paragraphs, makes clear that the entire 9. Influence social, religious, and political economy on Social of primitive life centers in them. They Develop are responsible for the formation of character in youth; the ideas then instilled control the domestic, social, and religious life of the adult. They are a strongly conservative force, based on a crude, empiric, yet often correct utilitarianism, which in many of its aspects is highly ethical. Individual and social morality are in the main their products. All this is true of even the crudest forms. The secret and magical fraternities into which the primary mysteries develop influence no less profoundly the three departments of human life and are potent in the evolution of the social organism. So that from a historical standpoint alone the subject is worthy of serious attention. When it comes to be seen that the Eleusinian, Orphic, and other mysteries which dominated so large a portion of Greek life, but elaborated and philosophized upon the central ideas of the primitive variety, the historical importance of these primitive forms becomes still more evident.

For a

II. Cultic Mysteries.-1. The Eleusinia: The typical mysteries of this sort are Greek. thorough appreciation of their importance and relations a prerequisite is knowledge of at least the barest outlines of Greek religious his1. Greek tory as the study of the last decade Religious has revealed it. The knowledge of BackGreek religion common since the domground. inance of Christianity is founded upon the pantheon of Homer and the mythology systematized by Hesiod. These were reflected in the writings known as the Greek classics and are the substance on which the official cults were founded. The Homeric deities are Aphrodite, Apollo, Ares, Artemis, Athene, Hephastos, Hera, Poseidon, and Zeus, king and ruler of gods and men." But there are constant reminders, in the mention of other deities, even in the classics, that these Homeric gods were not all in whom the Greeks believed. Recent investigation has made it clear that in the folk re

ligion, which had not the prestige of the state a these other deities had a large part. It is pro now that the members of the Homeric panth were invaders, not indigenous among the da haired pre-Homeric Greeks, and that they were objects of worship of the "fair-haired " hosts beleaguered Troy. Before them there had come other cults which had in some cases persisted, a there were indigenous nature deities whose ship and sacrifices the invaders adopted or app priated, these latter taking over the cults and shrines of the older gods, even though the sacri and the mode of worship were sometimes in gruous and even inappropriate according to a mon Greek ideas (as when Zeus, a heaven god, two cases received the sacrifice of a pig, which appropriate only to a chthonic or earth-god). Th earlier deities were for the most part chthonic, t concern was the produce of the earth, and tot worship of these peasants and country folk d with a persistency that even the gorgeous temp stately worship, and high art inspired by the gods could not shake. As in India after the cline of Buddhism the native faiths forced a a promise with the philosophic faith of Brahman that resulted in Hinduism, so in Greece the con over the religious mind held by Cybele or Rhea, Demeter, Persephone, or Ge, by Dionysus and and Selene not only held firm, but in some a forced recognition by the State. It was in com tion with this group of deities, to whom must added the prophet Orpheus, that the cultic teries were observed. And that the mysterie which these deities were the foci of attention exis practically throughout the Greek world is sua tible of proof. During several centuries imm ately preceding the Christian era they were cretized or diluted or adulterated by ruder elem brought in from Asia Minor or Crete or Thrac all of which regions orgiastic and primitive monies seem to have been cultivated with an ab don that removed them but little if at all from age rites. But the distinction between the G cultic mystery and the tribal celebration is, in la that the former crystallize about personal de and these deities are chthonic or concerned

the fruits of the earth (Lenormant, in Contempo Review, 1880, i. 848-849). The deities that st out in this relation are the "Great Mother Asia Minor, who takes form in Greece in, e.g. meter and Kore, and, among male gods, Diony "lord of the grape and its blood-red juice." It may be taken as proved, however, that Greek mysteries of the historical period are traced to clan celebrations prob 2. Origin of the same character as those of the scribed in the first part of this dis Eleusinia. sion. That the clan organization not upon a totemic basis at least with to accompaniments, existed in Greece in the p toric period and that it left observances which vived in the historic period are axiomatic for parative religionists. And this clan organiz implies the mystic initiation. The associati the clan mysteries with definite deities present difficulties. The development of ghosts into d

gods and of spirits into great deities are well-known furnished by foreign gods brought in with the phenomena; the centers of crystallization were mysteries (which will be taken as the typical examearlier migrations. In such cases as the Eleusinian ple here), the focusing upon Demeter and Kore is explained by the elements of the myth itself-in the narrative of a period of unfruitfulness followed by a return of harvest attributed to the goddess. The adoption is precisely parallel to the acclaim of Yahweh by Israel after the passage of the Red Sea and the defeat of the Amalekites. The early local character of the mysteries celebrated at Eleusis (12 m. n.w. of Athens) is attested by a large number of facts, the most prominent of which is the performance of the principal rites ("greater mysteries ") at Eleusis while only the preliminary rites ("lesser mysteries ") were performed at Athens. Moreover, this latter celebration was instituted almost certainly after the subjection of Eleusis to Athens in the seventh century B.C., and was clearly a political move to afford the suzerain city a share in the popular observances and to foster local pride. Almost as decisive a proof is the hereditary transmission of the principal functions in the mysteries and the restriction of knowledge of the higher secrets to certain families of Eleusis, the Eumolpida, Triptolemidæ, and Diocletidæ, and to these were given a heroic or semi-divine ancestry. Other indications of derivation from primitive puberty rites are the requirements of adultship in the candidates, as well as (in early times) of local citizenship, and (in all times) of legitimacy of birth; here also are to be placed the retention among the sacra of implements originally magical (so far as the reports of the sacra are to be trusted), the early meaning of which was lost while a palpably secondary and more philosophical symbolism was read into them.

The facts adduced, and a number of others, warrant selection of the Eleusinia as illustrative and typical of this type of rites. Significant are not only the evident ancestry, and a tendency to syn

3. Estimates of the

cretism, but also the esteem in which they were held, their duration throughEleusinia, out a millennium of history, and the abiding secrecy which veiled the pronessed by a series of testimonies. Thus Pausanias ceedings. How highly they were regarded is witSays (V., x. 1): "There is nothing on which the blessing of God rests in so full measure as the rites of Eleusis and the Olympic games "; Pindar (ed. C. J. T. Mommsen, p. 470, Berlin, 1864) declares:

O happy one, who goes beneath the hollow earth having witnessed these (mysteries)! he indeed knows the issues of life"; Sophocles remarks (as cited by Plutarch, Quomodo adolescens, iii.): "Thrice blessed the mortals who, having contemplated these mysteries, have descended to Hades; for those only will there be a future life [of happiness], the others will find there nothing but suffering and the Homeric Hymn to Demeter reads: Happy he among mortal men who hath beheld these things! he that is uninitiate, and hath no lot in them, hath never equal lot in death beneath the murky gloom (Andrew Lang, Homeric Hymns, p. 210, London, 1899). The history can be traced from Pindar and

"

Tribal and Cultio Mysteries

the Homeric Hymns in the seventh century B.c. to 396 A.D.; the mysteries survived the edicts of the Christian emperors, but the monks who accompanied Alaric to Attica in 396 secured the destruction of the temples and buildings at Eleusis in which the mystic drama had its home. For the continuance of the secrecy there are in evidence not only the still dense ignorance respecting the ritual and the fact that what little is known is the result of patient gleaning from every available source covering a millennium of Greek and Roman literature (best gathered in C. A. Lobeck, Aglaophamus, Regensburg, 1829), but also the explicit testimony of Gregory Nazianzen: "Eleusis knows as well as the witnesses the secret of this spectacle (the drama), which is with reason kept so profound ("Oration XXXIX. On the Holy Lights," in NPNF, 2 ser., vii., 353).

The myth which lay at the base of the Eleusinia as celebrated in the historical period was that Kore, daughter of Demeter, was seized while 4. The Kore gathering flowers and carried away by Myth. Hades, king of the lower world, Zeus conniving at the deed. Demeter wandered disconsolate over the earth seeking knowledge of her daughter, and at last was told by Helios, who alone had seen the rape, what had been done; after nine days' wandering she arrived at Eleusis in the guise of an old woman, where she seated herself by the sacred spring. She was kindly received by Celeus, king of the place, but declined refreshment in the shape of wine, directing, however, preparation of the kykeon-a compound of meal and water flavored with crushed mint, with which she broke her long fast. She became nurse to the infant son of Celeus, whom by daily anointing with ambrosial ointment and nightly baths of fire she intended to make immortal. But the mother was suspicious, spied on the goddess, was terrified at sight of the flames, and, crying out, foiled the purpose of Demeter. The latter then revealed herself, directed a temple to be built in her honor, and in this took up her dwelling; she then inaugurated the mysteries, the conduct of which she taught to the families of Eumolpus, Triptolemus, and Diocles, directing them ever to keep secret the knowledge imparted in the ceremonies from all but initiates (Arnobius, Against the Heathen," v. 25, ANF, vi. 499; A. Lang, ut sup., pp. 209-210). Still she mourned her daughter, and in sympathy the earth refused its fruits, till the extinction of the race of men and discontinuation of offerings to the gods were threatened. Zeus then sent Hermes to the lower world to release Kore and have her brought back to earth. Hades had, however, prevailed upon the maiden to eat a pomegranate seed, and, having eaten, she was bound to return thither, though a season of dwelling upon earth was permitted. So maid and mother were reunited at Eleusis, and the earth once more became fruitful (for a parallel to this myth see TAMMUZADONIS, 4; for the descensus ad inferos see SUN AND SUN WORSHIP, II., § 7). Eumolpus was accredited with the actual establishment of the cere monies, and in his family remained the chief places in the conduct of the mysteries. The natural objects in Eleusis made sacred by the visit of Demeter

were the hill where the shrine was erected, and the spring Callichoros shaded by the olive-tree under which Demeter rested. Into the myth as related above there were gradually woven Dionysiac and Orphic elements, which yet never obscured, as they did elsewhere, the local motif.

The myth is evidently etiological; a dearth may have been the occasion of the introduction of the Demeter and Kore elements that covered the more primitive rationale of the earlier clan rites. What seems to have escaped the attention of observers is the discord between myth and ceremonial. The former relates the reunion in the autumn of maid and mother-the season of harvest and of sowing of winter grain. The disappearance of Kore is by common consent the sowing of the seed corn, and this reappears (comes from the underworld) in its green sprouts in the spring, and spring, according to all analogy, should be the time of reunion of mother and daughter. Moreover, harvest offerings were, according to epigraphic evidence, a part of the involved ritual at Eleusis. The myth was, therefore, forced into connection with the Eleusinia, was superimposed upon the old clan ceremonies, just as the Dionysiac-Lacchic-Orphic elements later came in upon the whole.

As already indicated, the Eleusinia consisted of the "lesser and the greater" mysteries. The former were celebrated at Athens and served as the preliminary degree or preparation for 5. Lesser the greater or real initiation; they Mysteries. were sacred to Kore and Dionysus, while the greater were sacred to Demeter and Kore. The time of the lesser is in doubt, being either in the month Anthesterion (FebruaryMarch), or in Elaphebolion (March-April); the days were the twentieth to the twenty-first. The place was Agra or Agri, a suburb of Athens, near the spring Callirhoe, where was a temple to Demeter and Persephone (Kore). The memory of the purely supplementary origin of the lesser mysteries is preserved in the legend that they were instituted in honor of Herakles, who wished to be initiated, but could not as his visit to Athens did not coincide with the season of the observance; besides, one not a citizen could not take the greater initiation, and foreigners were allowed to take the lesser degree. The observance then became preliminary to the final ceremonies. Little is known of the rites, though it is certain that the central thought, as of the greater, was purification, there being several marks of that proceeding, fasting (abstention from fowl, certain kinds of fish, beans, pomegranates, and apples), continence, and lustration on the banks of the Ilyssos River (cf. Eusebius, Præparatio Evangelica, III., i., Eng. transl., i. 91, Oxford, 1903). The candidates received instruction from the mystagogue (preceptor for the occasion) in the needful matters; this possibly included the Eleusinian version of the myth concerning the principal deities, and may have embraced the Iacchic-Dionysiac corruptions. Certainly the methods of purification were taught, also the dietary restrictions and taboos and the kind and order of sacrifices.

The greater mysteries were divided between Athens and Eleusis, which places were connected

11

7. The Mysteries Proper.

by the "sacred way along which procession passed, with shrines at frequent intervals which ha p. 13, Leipsic, 1883), as well as of sacrifices to other significance for the celebration. T deities, demigods, and the Charites. The two nights 6. Greater time was the month Boedromion, the following were almost certainly the Mysteries: nights of initiation and of the presenseason of harvest for late fruits, b Initial tation of the mystic drama, when the Ceremonies.concerning the exact dates and t order of the rites there are considerab meter and her subsequent joy, visited the spots conmystæ shared the mourning of Dedifferences among the authorities. For three the dates there is epigraphic evidence which fix of the goddess, and then, like her, broke their fast secrated, according to the story, by the experiences the days for certain ceremonies. The actual ope by drinking the kykeon (see above, II., 1, § 4), the ing of the celebration was preceded perhaps to chief sacrament of the festival. The two nights of months earlier by the proclamation of the sacr the drama seem to represent two degrees of initiaheralds announcing the solemn truce between wa tion, the second possibly taken after a year's ring states, in order that would-be participant interval, full initiates being known as epopta, the might travel in safety. The dates fixed by inscrip term indicating evidently that they had seen and tions (Corpus inscriptionum Atticarum, III., 5) a (according to the formula given by Clement of the thirteenth, on which Athenian epheboi proceede Alexandria) handled the sacra. The day followto Eleusis to escort the sacra, which in processi ing seems to have been a day of games, at which were brought by priestesses to Athens on the fou the prize was a measure of new barley, the firstteenth, and on the nineteenth were returned t fruits from the sacred field of Demeter near by. Eleusis, where they were kept till the next yea The Eleusinia closed with the return of the myste The order of events was probably the following to Athens in procession bearing the statue of On the fifteenth came the gathering (agyrmos) Iacchus, two final events marking the entry. The the mystæ (those who had taken the lesser my first was the passing of the bridge of the Keteries) at the Stoa Poikile in Athens, and the phissos, the myste and the spectators bandying dress (prorrhesis) by the hierophant (the princip jests, sometimes ribald and perhaps obscene (an actor in the mysteries), while the herald war addition probably after the admission of Dionysus away the defiled and profane, murderers, traitor to a share in the honors; certainly not original); and the like, as well as non-Greeks (cf. the par and the pouring of two libations of water at the in Aristophanes' "Frogs," 354). On the sixteen gate of Athens, most likely one to the East (the was the essential and great purification know place of sunrise and the heavenly gods) and technically as halade mystæ, "to the sea, ye my the other to the West (the place of sunset tai," when the candidates proceeded to the sand of the entrance to the underworld). On the shore, each carrying the pig which was his sar next day, the ceremonies being closed, the Athefice (the one usual to chthonic gods), and this wit nian senate met to hear the report of the officials himself he purified by bathing. The seventeen concerning the celebration and to try offenders seems to have been the day when the archon-bai who had offered profanation. eus offered at Athens the great soteria sacrifice clear indications that the celebration was in Demeter and Kore; the eighteenth was apparent the latest period prolonged for two or three days, devoted to private sacrifices, these two constit thus deferring by that period the day of assembling ting the Epidauria, an accretion of the fifth a of the senate. tury. On the nineteenth the sacra were return to Eleusis. On the night of the nineteenth or ear on the morning of the twentieth took place the gra procession of the purified mysta, wearing my crowns and carrying torches (the torch is usual a symbol of underworld deities such as Kore b become), and the entire day was consumed a far into the night in traversing the sacred w stops being made for sacrifice and worship at numerous shrines. This procession escorteda the myrtle-crowned image of the young Iace (the Bacchus of the Eleusinia, son of Zeus & Demeter, identified also with Dionysus) attend by two priestesses who bore the liknon (fan, crad and playthings, all to the accompaniment of joyous cry Iacche ("O Iacchus "), songs, clash of cymbals, blowing of trumpets, and danc This day had distinction as the real beginning the mysteries-another of the many facts wh mark the performances at Athens as second and additional.

t

The twentieth (or twenty-first; from this po the dates are in uncertainty) was possibly the of the offering of first-fruits to Demeter (C. F. El Dittenberger, Sylloge inscriptionum Græcar

8. Essentials and Sacra.

There are very

The matters given in the preceding paragraphs constitute in the main the externals only, and except for the purifications and sacrifices do not deal with the concerns which gave to the mysteries their significance and their value. These externals were not closed to any citizens as spectators, women as well as men attending the processions and other rites. The secrecy began with the performances which followed the arrival of Iacchus at Eleuis. The essentials there consisted of four series of acts: katharsis or purification, sustasis or rites and sacrifices preliminary to initiation (both these open to the public as spectators); teleute or initiation, and epopeia or sight of the sacred objects (these only for candidates and initiates). In the epopteia are doubtless included the viewing of the sacred drama and the sight and handling of the sacra. Scattered cryptic references indicate that the drama included startling transformations effected by sudden transitions from darkness to intense light, while the actors reproduced the scenes of the myth, especially the reappearance of Kore from the underworld and the actions of the other divinities in the myth. The keynotes of all the proceedings were

Tribal and Cultic Mysteries

purification, consecration, and hope for the future both in this life and the next. Concerning the secret rites only a few details are known from incidental allusions in literature and from the excavations at Eleusis, the latter clearing up much concerning the possibilities of the telesterion or hall of initiation. It is a Christian Father, Clement of Alexandria ("Exhortation to the Heathen," chap. ii., in ANF, ii. 175-177; cf. Harrison, Prolegomena, ut sup., pp. 155, 158), who gives the token (symbol) by which the initiate proved his adeptship: "I fasted, I drank the kykeon, I took from the chest, I put into the basket and back from the basket into the chest "; or I ate from the timbrel, I drank from the cymbal, I carried the kernos, I passed beneath the pastos.' The meaning of the first two clauses in the first of these formulas is clear; the cryptic character of the rest is evident. But one can not doubt that certain articles were taken out of a chest, and for the time placed in a basket until all had been handled and then returned to the chest. Doubtless the mystagogue explained during the process the symbolical significance of the articles; but what these were is practically unknown. For while certain articles used in the mysteries are spoken of in the classics, in Clement of Alexandria, and in the earlier treatises on antiquities (such as Athenæus, "Banquet," xi. 52–56) and dictionaries, in each case there is doubt whether they belonged to the Eleusinia or to some of the numerous mysteries of the Greek world. With the utmost probability one of the articles was an ear of barley. Another, the kernos, is nearly as certain, and while it has been explained as a winnowing fan, it is now known from excavations to have designated a composite cup (Harrison, Prolegomena, ut sup., pp. 158-160)-a platter with a number of little cups attached which held cereals, perhaps honey, and other materials, symbolic of the gifts of Demeter. Clement (ut sup.) tabulates the articles taken from the chest as same, cakes, pyramidal cakes, globular and flat cakes embossed all over, lumps of salt, and a serpent, pomegranates, branches, rods, ivy leaves, poppy seeds, the unmentionable symbols of Themis, marjoram, a lamp, a sword, a woman's comb, which is a euphemism and mystic expression for the muliebra." But Clement may have confused these articles with things that were employed in the mysteries of the great mother of Asia Minor.

se

The sacerdotal functionaries who conducted or took part were the hierophantes of the Eumolpis family, who conducted the initiations 9. Officials. and uttered the sacred sayings in which the revelations were made. They were assisted by the daduchoi, who seem also to have been Eumolpidæ. These grades seem to have included both sexes. Other officers were the Iacchogos, kourotrophos (nurse) and dairites, who officiated in the Iacchic procession. The liknophoros bore the liknon (winnowing fan? or was it another name for the kernos?), explained by some as the article used as the cradle of the infant Iacchos. Hydranoi purified with water the candidates, pyrophoroi maintained the sacred fires, hieraules were sacred flutists