dogma; on the other it gives first place among required subjects to moral and civic teaching. Religious instruction is the province of the family; moral instruction belongs to the school.

Our legislators did not mean to pass an act that was purely negative. Doubtless their first object was to separate the school from the Church, to assure freedom of conscience to both teachers and pupils, in short, to distinguish between two domains too long confused; the domain of beliefs, which are personal, free, and variable; and that of knowledge, which, by universal consent, is common and indispensable to all. But there is something else in the law of March 28. It states the determination of the people to found here at home a national education, and to found it on the idea of duty and of right, which the legislator does not hesitate to inscribe among the fundamental truths of which no one can be ignorant.

It is on you, Sir, that the public has counted to realize this allimportant part of education. While you are relieved from religious teaching, there never was a question of relieving you from moral teaching. That would have deprived you of the chief dignity of your profession. On the contrary, it seemed quite natural that the master, while teaching the children to read and write, should also impart to them those simple rules of moral conduct which are not less universally accepted than the rules of language or of arithmetic.

CHAPTER XXIV

THE STRUGGLE FOR NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN ENGLAND

THE Readings in this chapter have been selected to illustrate the long struggle to create a national system of education in England. They cover the early beginnings, the period of the charitablevoluntary conception of education, the period of philanthropic effort to provide schools, and the long struggle to secure national support and national organization.

The first selection (291) reproduces the testimony of a witness, called before one of the many parliamentary commissions of inquiry, as to educational conditions among the poor of London, and the maintenance of a charity-school. It is typical of volumes of evidence collected in the course of a half-century by such means. The next (292) is a bookkeeping statement as to the early cost for a charity-school, and what was provided each pupil. In 1780 Sunday Schools were begun, as a means of helping solve the problem of educating and bettering the condition of the children of the poor, and in selection 293 Robert Raikes tells of the beginnings of the movement. Another form of charitable and philanthropic effort was the Ragged School, and 294 gives the Constitution and Rules for one of these, showing how they were organized and supported, for whom they were intended, and what they taught.

At about the same time that the French Revolutionary theorists were stating their theories as to education being an affair of the State, Adam Smith's celebrated book appeared, and selection 295 gives his reasoning as to why general education becomes especially necessary as society becomes more highly organized. A little later Rev. T. R. Malthus added to the argument for national education (296) by pointing out the wastefulness of poor relief, and the advantages of teaching people to help themselves.

The introduction of monitorial or mutual instruction, which was evolved near the beginning of the nineteenth century, gave a great impetus to the development of schools by making education for all for the first time seem possible. Selections 297 and 298 give

good descriptions of the organization and instruction given in the monitorial schools organized and directed by Lancaster.

In 1833 the first parliamentary grant for elementary education was made, and the conditions under which this was voted are described in 299. Now ensued a battle to extend the aid, and to enact a law organizing elementary education. This continued unsuccessfully until 1870. Selection 300 gives an extract from a speech of Lord Macaulay, declaring it the duty of the State to act in the matter. This speech is typical of many such made in both houses of Parliament. The evils of the existing conditions were pointed out in many official reports, of which 301, on the apprenticing of the children of paupers, is given as an example.

All these efforts met with much opposition, and selection 302 is introduced to show a typical conservative attitude. In 1858 a new Parliamentary Commission was appointed to review progress and to analyze needs, and a summary of the principles and recommendations of this body are given in 303. Finally the Education Act of 1870 was attained, the fundamental features of this being given in 304. It provided that children in the state schools need not attend religious instruction, and the same year another law (305) exempted students and candidates for degrees at the old English universities from similar requirements. Selection 306 is an excellent brief statement of the outstanding events in a century of English educational progress, and gives a good review of the efforts made to create a national system.

291. Charity-School Education described

(Report from Select Committee of the House of Commons, appointed to inquire into the Education of the Lower Orders in the Metropolis. Minutes of Evidence, П. London, 1816)

This Commission was appointed, on motion of Henry Brougham (later Lord Brougham), to take evidence as to educational conditions in London, Westminster, and Southwark, and to report to the House of Commons "what may be fit to be done with respect to the children of Paupers." The Commission found one hundred and thirty thousand children without school accommodations, and recommended that Parliament should take "proper measures for supplying the deficiency of the means of Instruction which exist at present, and for extending this blessing to the Poor of all descriptions."

The following evidence, given by the first witness examined, is both typical of the evidence and descriptive of the work and means of support of a charity-school.

Monday, June 3rd, 1816.

HENRY BROUGHAM, Esq. in the Chair.

Mr. GEORGE GRIFFITHS called in, and examined.
Where do you live? — Saint Katherine's, near the Tower.
Are you a schoolmaster in the neighbourhood? - Yes.
Of what school? Saint Katherine's charity-school.

Upon what foundation is that school? It is supported by voluntary contributions.

What is the amount of annual subscriptions? - It has varied very much within the last seven or eight years; it formerly used not to *amount to more than sixty or seventy pounds, it has in the last six or seven years amounted to upwards of £100 by subscriptions and donations.

What is the whole amount of the yearly income? pared to state that exactly.

- I am not pre

Is it £200? - Yes, it must be that, because our expenses amount to that.

How many children are educated there? - Fifty.

Boys and girls?—Yes.

What are they taught? - Reading, writing, and arithmetic, and clothed.

What is the master's salary? - The master and mistress, £60 a year between them.

Are there any other salaries than the master's and mistress's? Nothing more than a trifling salary, for teaching psalmody, of four guineas a year.

None.

Have the master and the mistress any perquisite?
A house? A house to live in, and coal, but no candle.
Are there ever fewer children than fifty? — No.
How long have you been master? About eight years.
How many were there when you came? Fifty.

Have there never been fewer, at any one time of the year, since the time you have been there? - There may have been so for a month or six weeks; the committee meet the first Tuesday in every month, and if there is a vacancy they admit whatever child is next in rotation to come in.

How long has the school been established? Since the year 1707.

Had it never any more property, besides the money in the funds? The chapter of Saint Katherine's has made it a present, at several times, of the leases of three houses towards its support.

Have they that leasehold property at present? - They have.

At what are the houses underlet? Sixty pounds a year, the three. Then the school has this £60 a year in addition to the interest of £1550 in the funds, and £100 a year subscriptions? - The increase of stock has doubled since I have been schoolmaster, owing to a lady who died and left us £500.

In what stock is it? - Navy 5 per cents.

Then instead of nearly £200, it appears the income of the school is above £250 a year? I was not aware of any question of the kind

being asked, or I would have been prepared to answer it.

Is there any other property whatever belonging to the establishment? - - None.

How are the children clothed? - They are completely clothed at Midsummer, and extra shoes, stockings, and linen, at Christmas.

Any other salary paid, besides the master and mistress's? None. Do the premises belong to the institution? - During the lease; the schoolhouse is a gift of the chapter of Saint Katherine's, during their pleasure, for which no rent is paid; there is a ground-rent paid for the other property.

Are there any occasional contributions and donations, besides the annual subscriptions? - I include those in the annual subscriptions. Any charity sermons? Yes, we have about one a year.

Is that included in the former account of £100?—No, that is not, so that the produce of this is to be added to the former sum.

What are the hours of teaching? - From nine to twelve, and from two to five; six hours a day.

Have you any other occupation than schoolmaster? — I am parish clerk.

Any other occupation? As parish clerk, I do a little business in the undertaking line, which I employ other people to do. Any other? - I do make a trifle as a musician; I am chorus singer to his Majesty's ancient concert of music in Hanover-square. Have you any other employment? - No. Do you teach any other scholars besides those in the school? — I am allowed to take a few, as they offer, such as sixpenny scholars per week; and very often I give several children their education, without charging them any thing.

Do the fifty children upon the foundation pay any thing? - Nothing. Are they in general children of very poor people? — In general very poor.

Are there many poor children in the neighbourhood in which you