poverty," that is, on less than enough to provide the minimum of food, clothing and shelter. And, in addition, 13,072 persons, or 1793 per cent. of the population, were living in "secondary poverty," that is, on earnings which would be sufficient if spent with rigid economy and perfect wisdom, but were insufficient because in part misspent on drink and betting or through ignorant housekeeping. "The wages paid for unskilled labor in York are insufficient to provide food, shelter and clothing adequate to maintain a family of moderate size in a state of bare physical efficiency." No less than 52 per cent. of "primary" poverty was due to low wages alone (Poverty, 2nd ed., pp. 83, 120, 133).

One great cause of the short and miserable lives of the poor is the insanitary condition of the slums in which many of them are compelled to dwell. The strongest testimony to the evil effects of such surroundings comes from the insurance companies. The industrial friendly societies have in each large town their "proscribed streets." The Liverpool Victoria Legal Friendly Society proscribes, for Liverpool alone, on account of their insanitary character, 167 "streets wherein no members of the Society may be entered" (Circular of the 13th October, 1886). Yet these unhealthy streets are not too bad to be the only homes of thousands of the poorer citizens of that commercial centre.

INFANT MORTALITY.

"The best indication probably as to whether the conditions of life in any locality are healthy or the reverse is the infant mortality" (The Dwelling House, by G. V. Poore).

In the Analysis of the causes of death in England and Wales furnished by Dr. Tatham, M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P., to the RegistrarGeneral, and published in the Report for 1904 (Cd-2,617), attention is called to "the enormous sacrifice of life that besets early infancy in England and Wales. Nearly half the children dying under one year perish within three months of their birth; whilst of survivors in the second year of life there die more than twice as many as in any one of the three succeeding years." He gives particulars of the mortality among children under five years of age-rate per 1,000 living-from which it appears that their death-rate from all causes in England and Wales in 1904 was 51.62 per thousand; 60-69 in urban counties, and 38 14 in rural counties. The highest death-rate amongst children was in Lancashire (67·67); the next highest was Durham (6237); whilst London came twelfth (54'79). The lowest death-rate was in the county of Westmoreland (2402).

The infantile death-rate at Bethnal Green is twice that of Belgravia. Holborn (151,835) and St. George's, Hanover Square (149,748), have almost equal populations; yet, in the former, 1,614, in the latter, only 1,007 children under five died in 1884* (RegistrarGeneral's Report, 1886, pp. 32, 126, C-4,722).

Dr. Playfair says that 18 per cent. of the children of the upper class, 36 per cent. of those of the tradesmen class, and 55 per cent.

*No figures for a comparison of this kind are given in the Registrar-General's Reports for years subsequent to 1884.

of those of the workmen, die before they reach five years of age (quoted at p. 133 of Dictionary of Statistics, by Mr. Mulhall, who, however, thinks it "too high an estimate").

OVERCROWDING STATISTICS. From Censuses 1891 and 1901,
General Report.*

ENGLAND ANd Wales.-OvercrowdiNG.

The total number of tenements in England and Wales was, in 1901, according to the returns, 7,036,868, which gives, with a population of 32,527,843, an average of 4'6 persons to each tenement. The six great towns in which the percentage of overcrowded persons was the highest were as follows:

Speaking generally, it would appear that the coal-bearing counties are those where the crowding of dwellings is most severe.

OVERCROWDING IN LONDON REGISTRATION COUNTY.

830,182 persons living more than two in a room = 1971 per cent. to total population. (General Report, 1891 Census, p. 118.)

"This figure of nearly 20 per cent., however, is based on the population of the whole town, which in 1891 was 4,211,743. To ascertain the real nature of the overcrowding problem, it is essential to look more closely into the details of the different districts of London. It will then be found that in such central parts as Holborn, Clerkenwell, St. Luke's, Whitechapel and St. George-inthe-East, the overcrowding exceeds 35 per cent. Look more closely into selected areas in these districts and the problem appears even more serious. The average number of persons per acre for all London is 56. In the Old Artillery Ground it is 427, in Spitalfields

*The figures for 1901 have been calculated from the material given in the Preliminary Report, and though approximately correct, must not be taken as exactly

accurate.

it is 322, in Mile End Old Town it is 269. These three districts are in Whitechapel" (London Government, by Frederick Whelen, p. 67). In 1901 the figures were about 719,293 persons, or 15.88 per cent.

MORTALITY AND OVERCROWDING (LONDON).

Proportion of Total Population living
more than two in a room (in Tene-
ments of less than five rooms).

Death-rate, "All Causes,"

1885-92.

Class 1 comprises City, Battersea, Camberwell, Chelsea, Deptford, Fulham, Greenwich, Hackney, Hammersmith, Hampstead, Kensington, Lambeth, Lewisham, Paddington, Stoke Newington, Wandsworth, Westminster, Woolwich.

Class 2 comprises Bermondsey, Islington, Poplar.

Marylebone, St. Pancras, Southwark.

Bethnal Green, Holborn, Shoreditch.

Stepney.

Finsbury.

(Abstracted from the Annual Reports of the Medical Officer of Health to the London County Council for 1901 and 1904.)

We clog our public poor relief with irksome and degrading conditions, so that the honest poor often die lingering deaths rather than accept it. Mr. Charles Booth states that "as regards entering the workhouse, it is the one point on which no difference of opinion exists among the poor. The aversion to the 'house' is absolutely universal, and almost any suffering and privation will be endured by people rather than go into it" (The Aged Poor in England and Wales). Yet the paupers in actual receipt of public relief on one day number more than a million :

England and Wales, 1st January, 1905 932,267 cost £13,369,494
Scotland, 15th January, 1904
Ireland, 7th January, 1905 ...

...

...

106,850
103,240

1,302,061 1,033,168

1,142,357 £15,704,723

(Report of Local Government Board, England and Wales, Cd-2,661; Report of Local Government Board, Scotland, Cd-2,514; Report of Local Government Board, Ireland, Cd-2,655).

But the relief is not usually given permanently; to obtain the number of different individuals who receive relief during a year we must multiply the daily number by 23. (This is the computation given in Mr. Charles Booth's paper before the Statistical Society, December, 1891. See also his Pauperism, a Picture; and the Endowment of Old Age, an Argument.) This gives a pauper class during any one year of about 2,627,000 persons, or 1 in 6 of the manual-labor class. In some rural districts every aged laborer is a pauper.

The maintenance of these paupers cost £15,704,723 for a year. But in addition to this public expenditure, the various charitable societies spend £10,040,000 annually (Mr. Mulhall, Dictionary of Statistics, p. 112), and the charity of individuals is known to be enormous. The numbers of the destitute class must therefore be largely increased. Sir R. Giffen talks of the class of five millions "whose existence is a stain on our civilization" (Essays in Finance, vol. ii., p. 350). It is the lot of at least one in five of the manuallabor class of 16 in every 100 of the whole population-to belong to this class.

"To me, at least, it would be enough to condemn modern society as hardly an advance on slavery or serfdom, if the permanent condition of industry were to be that which we behold, that 90 per cent. of the actual producers of wealth have no home that they can call their own beyond the end of the week; have no bit of soil, or of so much as a room that belongs to them; have nothing of value of any kind except as much old furniture as will go in a cart; have the precarious chance of weekly wages which barely suffice to keep them in health; are housed for the most part in places that no man thinks fit for his horse; are separated by so narrow a margin from destitution, that a month of bad trade, sickness, or unexpected loss brings them face to face with hunger and pauperism. This is the normal

state of the average workman in town or country" (Mr. Frederick Harrison, p. 429, Report of Industrial Remuneration Conference, 1886). The normal state of the "average workman" is the average normal state of four out of five of the whole population (Prof. Leone Levi, Times, 13th January, 1885).

XII. The Evil and the Remedy.

"The deepest root of the evils and iniquities which fill the industrial world is not competition, but the subjection of labor to capital, and the enormous share which the possessors of the instruments of industry are able to take from the produce" (J. S. Mill quoting Feugueray, Principles of Political Economy, p. 447, edition of 1865).

We have been suffering for a century from an acute outbreak of individualism, unchecked by the old restraints, and invested with almost a religious sanction by a certain soul-less school of writers' (Prof. H. S. Foxwell, University College, London, p. 249 of essay in The Claims of Labor, 1886).

"It is, indeed, certain that industrial society will not permanently remain without a systematic organization. The mere conflict of private interests will never produce a well-ordered commonwealth of labor" (article on "Political Economy" in Encyclopædia Britannica, vol. xix., 1886, p. 382, since published as the History of Political Economy, by J. K. Ingram, LL.D., Trinity College, Dublin).

Socialists affirm that the evil can never be remedied until the "two nations" are united by the restitution to public purposes of

rent and interest of every kind, and by the growth of social sympathy promoted by the accompanying cessation of class distinctions. It will be seen by the above quotations that this position is based on the facts of the case as ascertained and declared by the recognized authorities in statistics, and is in entire harmony with the doctrines of Political Economy.

XIII. Some Steps already taken towards Socialism.

The restitution to public purposes of rent and interest of every kind cannot be effected by revolution, or by one or a dozen Acts of Parliament. Legislative reforms are needed, but they must be supplemented by a thoroughly organized exercise by all local authorities, from Parish to County Councils, of the powers they already possess, as well as by the acquisition of new and more far-reaching powers. The supply of water, milk, gas, and electric light, the establishment of markets, slaughter-houses, tramways, steamboats, baths, wash-houses, cemeteries, harbors, libraries, bands, art galleries, museums, open spaces, gymnasia, allotments, the buildings of workmen's dwellings and municipal lodging-houses are being carried on by municipal authorities for the common good. They might be extended to every urban community in the kingdom if public opinion and public enterprize were sufficiently alert to their opportunities. The following figures show the influence of socialistic principles in our municipal administration. A House of Commons Return, issued in December, 1902, gives a summary of the reproductive undertakings carried on by 299 out of the 317 municipal boroughs in England. and Wales; total capital, 121,172,372; balance outstanding, 31st March, 1902, 104,925,853; average annual income for four years to 31st March, 1902, £13,368,702; average annual working expenses for the same period, £8,228,706; average annual net profit for the same period, 4,812,005 (H.C.-398, 16th December, 1902). No later returns have been made.

The establishment of Works Departments and the direct employment of labor are municipal developments which are yearly transforming hundreds of workers into State servants.

The restitution of rent and interest to public purposes will be mainly brought about by means of progressive taxation in the shape of graduated death duties, a graduated differentiated income tax, and the rating of land values. The budget of 1894 not only cleared the way for the application of socialist principles to taxation, but immediately brought a largely increased revenue out of accumulated capital into the national exchequer. It enacted a scale of duties varying from 1 per cent. on estates of £500 to 8 per cent. on those of £1,000,000 and over. During the year 1904-5 the revenue from the death duties was £17,258,431. In the period 1894-5 to 1904-5 no less than £176,184,916 was collected from this source of taxation, an average of 16,016,810 a year, as against £9,979,691 in 1893-4 (Cd-2,633).

By these and similar means, very greatly extended, the emancipation of the workers from the burden of private monopoly will slowly but surely come.