9. ii. πό εἰρήνη. War and peace. what and how great they may be; in order that, if any branch is overlooked, it may be added to the rest; and, if any be in default, it may be augmented. Moreover he should be acquainted with the whole expenditure of the state, that if any expense be superfluous it may be curtailed; if any too high, it may be reduced. For men become more wealthy, not only by adding to their capital stock, but by detracting from their expenses as well. These, however, are points which we must not only learn from our own experience as individuals; but, with a view to deliberation on these subjects, one ought to be qualified by a research into the discoveries made by other people. Respecting questions of war and peace, the orator AEMOS Kai must needs be acquainted with the force of the state, how great it actually is already, and how great it admits of becoming; of what description also it is already, and what additions admit of being made to it. Moreover he should know both what wars the state has been engaged in, and how it has conducted them. This must he needs know, not in relation to his own state only, but as regards frontier states also; particularly in the case of those with whom there is a likelihood of being at war, in order that toward the more powerful, pacific measures may be held, and that in regard to the weaker, it may rest with his own state to make war or not. He should also be acquainted with the description of force which belongs to each state, whether it resemble or differ7 from his own; for it is possible, even in this respect, to secure an advantage to yourself, or to have one taken by the enemy. In order to all which things, the orator must necessarily have considered with attention the wars, not of his own state only, but those also of others, what has been their issue; for it is natural that from similar causes similar results should accrue. 7 See this point touched on by Pericles, Thucyd. i. 141 where he declares the Peloponnesians to be πολεμεῖν, μὴ πρὸς ὁμοίαν ἀντιπαρασκεύην, ἀδύνατοι. Safe Moreover as regards the safeguard of the terri- 10. iii. øvtory, it should not escape his attention how that is an. preserved; but he must be acquainted as well with guard of the numbers, as the nature of the garrisons, and with the counthe positions of the strong holds: this it is impossi- try. ble that one not acquainted with the country should know. But known it must be, in order that if any garrison be weak, it may be reinforced; if any be unnecessary, it may be done away, and the force may rather maintain positions strictly adapted to defence. Provi and ex ports. Again, on the subject of provision, the orator 11. iv. should know how great a consumption is sufficient to Top. subsist the state, and of what kind that is which sion, i. e. arises at home, and what is imported; and those imports nations whose exports there is need of, and those to whose markets he wants to import his home productions, in order that commercial treaties and agreements may be entered into with them. [All this should the orator be acquainted with], because it is absolutely necessary strictly to preserve your citizens from any ground of quarrel in two of their relations, viz. in respect to those physically their superiors, and those who may be serviceable in aforementioned points. Legislation. Thus much then it is absolutely necessary that the deliberative orator should be able to consider, in order to the security of the state; neither is an at- 12. v. vótention to legislation the least essential; for in its o legislative enactments stands the safety of the state. And thus it becomes requisite, both that he should know how many forms of government there are, and what system of things is expedient for each; and what things, as well peculiar to the government, as opposite to it, have a natural tendency to destroy it 9. I talk of a government being destroyed by He gives hints, § 9, about what is necessary, μὲν τοὺς κρείτους εἰρηνεύηται. ὁπῶς πρὸς 9 For a statement of the things, peculiar to democracy and oligarchy, which have a tendency to destroy them, see the speeches of Megabyzus and Darius, on the question of the con The ac counts 13. things peculiar to itself; because, with the exception It is serviceable moreover with a view to legislation, to apprehend not only what constitution is expedient, by deriving your view from circumstances past, but to become acquainted also with the constitution of other states, and to what kind of constitutions what sort of measures are adapted. Thus it is plain, that accounts of travellers are of use with a view to legislation; for hence we are able to ascerof foreign tain what the laws of other nations are; and with a states are view to debates on matters of state, the researches of those who write on human conduct are useful: all these points however form part, not of rhetoric, but of the science of social life. given by travellers also use ful, So many then are the questions of highest concern touching which the deliberative orator must be in possession of propositions. We will, however, again discuss the elements out of which it is proper to exhort and dissuade, as well on these as on other questions. stitution fittest for Persia, after the assassination of Smerdis, the Magian usurper. Herodot. iii. 81, 82. See also Eth. Nich. viii. 10. CHAP. V. The Objects at which Orators should aim in exhorting or dissuading. What Happiness is; and whence its constituents are deduced. general NEARLY every one individually, and all men in ge- 1. Happineral, have some object, at which directing every aim, ness the they both choose and avoid; and this, to speak sum- object. marily, is happiness and its constituents. Let us 2. then, for the sake of getting at a received standard, ascertain what happiness, generally speaking, is; and what are its constituents; for on the subject of it, and what conduces to it, and of its opposites, exhortation or dissuasion is always conversant; and this, because we needs do the things which procure it or any of its constituents, or which render it greater from having been less, and refrain from doing the things which destroy or impede it, or produce its opposites. tions of it Let happiness then be defined to be good fortune 3. Four in conjunction with virtue2,-or, independency of life, defini-or, the life which is most pleasant, accompanied by security, or, abundance of property and slaves, with power to preserve and augment it; for mankind allow either one or more of these things to amount nearly to happiness. If then happiness be such as I 4. have described, its constituents must necessarily be— 1st, noble birth3, many and excellent friends, wealth, a good and numerous offspring, a good old age; and moreover personal excellencies; as health, comeliness, strength, stature, ability in the games; character; The end of deliberation is Tà σvμpéρovтα, of action εὐδαιμονία. 2 The first of these is the opinion of the Socratic school; the second, of the Stoics; the third, of the Epicureans; the last, the popular one. See a similar description, Hooker, v. § 76, p. 413. "honour 3 Of these, the first enumerated as far as "character" inclusive, may be considered dvváμsis: the two next, and good fortune," as Tiuia: the last, namely, "virtue and its constituents," as TaiεTà, according to the mode of philo. sophic division mentioned in the Ethics, lib. i. c. 12. D internal or external. nal. 1st. High birth. i. National. ii. Individual. -2nd, honour, good fortune;-3rd, virtue, and its constituents, prudence, courage, justice, temperance. Thus furnished, one would be most independent, were both external and internal goods his own; for besides Goods are these there are no others. But the internal goods are mental and personal; the external, noble birth, friends, wealth, and distinction. We deem, moreover, that power and good fortune ought to be present, for thus would life be most independent. Wherefore, let us ascertain what each of these advantages is.5. Exter- Noble birth then is, in the case of a nation or state, their being aborigines 4, or at least ancient possessors, and for their first leaders to have been illustrious, and indeed for many to have been born from among them illustrious on the score of things which men emulate. Considered in reference to individuals, noble birth is derivable from male or female ancestry, and legitimacy on both sides; and, just as in the case of a state, to have had the first of their line well known on the score of virtue, wealth, or any other valued quality; and for many of their kindred to have been illustrious, as well men as women, as well young as old :6. Good we cannot be at a loss for the constituents of a good offspring and numerous progeny. As referred to the commoni. Publi: wealth ; a good offspring will be, youth who are numerous and accomplished. Accomplished in respect to personal excellence, as stature, comeliness, strength, ability in the games: and as to that of the mind, temperance and courage; these all, in their two divisions, are excellencies of the young. In reference to individuals, a good and numerous offspring consists in your own children being numerous, and they, as well male as female, such as I have described. The excellence of females in regard to person, is beauty and stature; in regard to the mind, temperance and fondness for employment, without meanness: —and we ought, as well individually as collectively, ii. Private. It was the boast of the Athenians that they were auтóx0oVES; and in reference to this Cicero says of their state, "Quæ vetustate ea est, ut ipsa ex sese suos cives genuisse dicatur." Orat. pro L. Flacco. |