276. "All these problems were worked out by an inflexible purpose of will." (F. 162 and Pr. 224.)

277. "To Cicero must be accorded the greater versatility of talents (Pr. 212 and F. 162) since his fame rests not alone on his eloquence."

278. 66 Principles and even personal (E. 293) ambitions."

persons were sacrificed to (Pr. 212.)

279. Truly is (F. 199 and Pro. 282) the story of Paul and Virginia eloquently and pathetically told.” (E. 300.) 280. "After years of doctoring (Pu. 236) she somewhat (Pr. 200) recovered the use of her hands."

281. "He shows great ability as a statesman (U. 291). His chief desire is for the welfare of Prussia and to see (Pu. 241) her the first nation in Europe."

282. "The highest success crowned her efforts (F. 169 and U. 290), and also great glory."

283. "Her errors were those of judgment rather than (Pu. 241 and E. 305) the result of viciousness."

284. "He won the favor at once (Pr. 227 and E. 293) of the virgin queen by his pleasantry." (F. 164.)

285. "He is well aware that he could not endure the labor which (C. 123) would earn (Pr. 200) a living that would (F. 162) serve a man of his social standing.'

286. "The great interior region of Africa is the only (C. 156) part of the earth (Pr. 218) which, by its size and resources, offers any inducement to the civilized adventurer or pioneer.

287. "

Along its summit are a few mammoth trees whose neighbors have met their fate at the hands of the woodsman, and whose (C. 122 and Pr. 218) stumps are still standing."

288. "On the same day (C. 156 and Pu. 270) they were accused, they were arragned (Pr. 201), condemned, and sentenced."

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289. "A steamboat, run (Pu. 236) in connection with the trains, starts each day for Glen Haven."

290. "It requires no prophet's eye to foresee the consternation (Pr. 200 and E. 293 and 300) and peril that will threaten this nation."

291. "It belongs in the list of historical novels, than which there (F. 162) can nothing usually be found (E. 296 and F. 169) more tedious."

292. "Two men, sometimes great friends, go into a low saloon and commence (Pr. 200) to play cards or (Pr. 223) some other way of gambling."

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293. "A great many crimes have been committed by persons (Pr. 232) having read (C. 127) accounts of criminals in this paper. It is said that Jesse James was a regular reader of this paper." (E. 293 and F. 169.)

294. "Sevenoaks' was (Pu. 256 and 269) the name of a small town. Mr. Holland does not state definitely the location of this town." (U. 291 and F. 162 and 169.)

295. "She bids him take his bond, but (C. 156 and Pu. 241) that if, in the cutting of it, he shed one drop of blood, his lands and goods should (Pu. 269) be confiscated."

296. "They require an examination on the work gone (Pr. 200) over during the term before passing the student up (Pro. 275) on the same."

297. " "If we look about us to see for what the chief end of men's labor is (F. 162 and 163), we find (Pr. 228) it is wealth."

298. "But if, by chance, this same picture was (Pu. 251) marred by a daub of paint which had been (F. 162) brushed on the most perfect part, the beauty would be destroyed."

299. "The New York Central Railroad and (C. 133) Erie Canal run through the town, side by side, and divide it nearly equal in extent." (Pr. 200.)

300. "The Dutch element is strongly marked both by (Pu. 268) the character of the people and (C. 137) their names."

CHAPTER IX.

RHETORICAL IMAGERY.

UNDER this head may be classed all those forms by which clearness, force, or beauty is given to the expression of an idea through its relation to some other idea.

Of the multitude of figures noted by the ancient rhetoricians, modern authorities generally recognize but fifteen, namely: Simile, Metaphor, Personification, Allegory, Synecdoche, Metonymy, Antithesis, Epigram, Hyperbole, Climax, Apostrophe, Vision, Interrogation, Exclamation, and Irony. To these should be added that which Kames has named the "Transferred Epithet."

The old rhetoricians classified these principal figures under three heads: Resemblance, Contiguity, and Contrast; and recent attempts to improve upon this classification have been few and futile. In the following table we have merely amplified this classification:

Simile Resemblance fully stated.
Metaphor Resemblance implied.
Personification Resemblance assumed.
Allegory Resemblance carried out in detail.

Synecdoche-
Association

Metonymy
Association

Of a whole with its parts.

Of parts with the whole.

Of definite with indefinite number.

Of cause with effect.

Of sign with thing signified.

Of place with inhabitant.

Of container with thing contained.
Of instrument with agent.

Of subject with attribute.
Of an author with his works.
Of progenitor with posterity.
Of material with thing made.
Exclamation Association of strong emotion with verbal
forms

Hyperbole Association of fact with co-existent emotion.
Apostrophe Association of the absent with the present.
Vision Association of past or future with present.

Based on

Antithesis Direct expressed contrast.

Climax Contrast through intermediates.

Epigram Contrast often implied between real and apparent meaning.

the idea of Interrogation=Implied contrast of affirmation and nega

Contrast.

tion.

Irony Implied contrast between truth and the contrary assumption.

The "transferred epithet" may be classed under the second head, as based on the association between the attributes of related subjects.

We shall take up the figures above named in order, giving, successively, definitions, rhetorical values, and illustrations of each.

SECTION I. DEFINITIONS, VALUES, AND ILLUSTRATIONS. I. SIMILE.

Definitions." A Simile is a sentence expressing a similarity of relations. It is consequently a kind of rhetorical proportion, and must, when fully expressed, contain four terms; e.g., the simile, 'As the plough turns up the land, so the ship acts on the sea,' may be stated thus: The plough is to the land as the ship is to the sea;' i.e., A:B::C:D."-Adapted from Abbott and Seeley.

"A figure of speech in which a likeness is pointed out or asserted between things in other respects unlike.”—Kellogg. "A resemblance is not a figure of speech unless the things compared be different in kind."-Bain.

"A simile is the statement of the resemblance of one object, act, or relation to another. . . . It may be founded on (1) direct resemblance; (2) resemblance of causes; (3) resemblance of effects; (4) resemblance of ratios.”—D. J. Hill.

Rhetorical Values.-1. To aid the understanding. For example, in order to describe an object that has not been seen, or cannot be seen, we make use of the description of one that has been seen. Take the following:

(a) "Aluminum is a metal with a lustre like that of silver and platinum."

(b) "The illusion that great men and great events came oftener in early times than now, is partly due to historical perspective.. As, in a range of equidistant columns the farthest off look the closest, so the conspicuous objects of the past seem more thickly clustered, the more remote they are."

2. To impress the feelings. This is frequently brought about by means of the surprise created in the mind of the reader. "Whatever," says Kames,* "is found more strange or beautiful than was expected, is judged to be more strange or beautiful than it is in reality." For example, Ossian says, "The music of Caryl was like joys that are past: pleasant and mournful to the soul." All witty similes will be found to rest upon this idea of surprise. As another illustration of a simile serving only to impress the feelings, take the picture of the spinster aunt in Mrs. Browning's "Aurora Leigh:"

"Cheeks in which was yet a rose
Of perished summers like a rose in a book,
Kept more for ruth than pleasure-if past bloom,
Past fading also."

II. METAPHOR.

Definitions.—“ A Metaphor differs from a simile in form only, not in substance."-Kames.

"A word substituted for another on account of the resemblance or analogy between their significations.”— Whately.

"A word used to imply a resemblance."-D. J. Hill. "The transference of the relation between one set of objects to another for the purpose of brief explanation.' Abbott and Seeley.

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Metaphor indicates the resemblance of two objects by applying the name, attribute, or act of one directly to the other."-Quackenbos.

"A Metaphor is a figure of speech in which, assuming the likeness between two things, we apply to one of them the term which denotes the other."-Kellogg.

*"Elements of Criticism," p. 146.