99. (3) To distinguish words of similar spelling but different pronunciation and meaning; and sometimes, in place of the diæresis, between vowels belonging to different syllables.

Ex.-"Re-creation," "co-ordinate," etc.

100. (4) To separate syllables for rhetorical purposes, as in the syllabication of dictionaries.

Ex.-"Hy-poth-e-cate," "ex-tem-po-re."

XI. USES OF QUOTATION-MARKS.

101. (1) To enclose direct, formal quotations; that is, quotations where the exact language of another is repeated. 102. When the form of expression is slightly altered, single marks are used. When the quotation ends the sentence some writers omit the marks, and leave the quotation to be indicated simply by the capital at the beginning; others print quoted paragraphs in different type and attach the name of the author. Where several paragraphs are quoted, some writers repeat the inverted commas at the beginning of each, but place the apostrophe after the last only. In this respect usage varies greatly.

103. A quotation within a quotation takes single marks, and one within the second, double marks again.

Ex." He proceeded with such 'masterly inactivity' as is seldom seen.

104. (2) To enclose the titles of books, and those of magazines and papers, where italics are not used.

NOTE.-Crocker states that in examining The Atlantic, Nation, Scribner's Monthly, Harper's, Appletons' Magazine, Lippincott's, Popular Science Monthly, Galaxy, Eclectic, N. A. Review, New Englander, London Quarterly, British Quarterly, Westminster Review, Edinburgh Review, Contemporary Review, and The Fortnightly Review, he found that thirteen of these use quotationmarks, and four italics, in referring to the titles of books; eleven use italics, and six use quotation-marks, in referring to magazines and papers.

105. (3) Matter within quotation-marks is to be punctuated as if it were independent.

106. If an interrogation or an exclamation point is required at the close of a quotation, it is to be placed inside the marks, when it refers to the quotation alone, and outside when it refers both to the quotation and to the rest of the sentence. The other points, when coming at the end of a sentence, are placed inside the quotation-marks.

Ex's.-Why do you sit here amid the sad surroundings of this "God's Acre"?

"When will you come?" asked Walter.

"The treatment of the native servants in India by their English masters is but another example of 'man's inhumanity to man.'"

In conclusion, it should be noted that punctuation is to be used only as a matter of necessity. It is dependent, not primary. The sentence that is so constructed as to need the least punctuation in order clearly to be understood is, other things being equal, the best sentence. "Punctuation," says Kames, "may remove an ambiguity, but will never produce that peculiar beauty which is perceived when the sense comes out clearly and distinctly by means of a happy arrangement."

106a. In criticising essays, this number will be used to indicate superfluous punctuation.

CHAPTER V.

USES OF ITALICS.

107. ONE of the errors most common to the young writer, and especially to one of vivid imagination, is to underscore, and thereby to italicize, too many words. The temptation is constantly to trespass upon the domain of Elocution, and to indicate beforehand all particular emphasis; moreover, to emphasize everything is to emphasize nothing. This practice is offensive to the reader in two ways; it belittles his intelligence, and it irritates him by imposing arbitrary emphasis with which he may not agree. At the same time, the use of italics is of the greatest importance in certain particular cases:—

108. (1) To distinguish foreign words, titles, and sentences. This rule is invariable.

109. (2) To indicate the titles of magazines, papers, and sometimes those of books. (See note under uses of Quotation-marks, ¶ 104.)

110. (3) Italics are frequently used to indicate the names of ships, railway coaches, engines, etc. This usage extends to any inanimate object having a peculiar individuality. Quotation-marks are often used here instead.

111. (4) To indicate side-heads and the titles of paragraphs and sections.

CHAPTER VI.

PARAGRAPHING.

No feature in the material dress of a composition requires more constant and careful thought than does the construction of logical paragraphs. One may become so familiar with the principles of punctuation or capitalization as to apply them almost without mental effort; but two problems in paragraphing are rarely, if ever, exactly alike. The paragraph consists of a group of sentences that are closely related in thought. It is indicated by beginning the first line a little to the right of the margin, and generally by a wider space between it and the last paragraph than is left between the lines of the paragraph itself. The object of the paragraph is to inform the reader where the consideration of any particular point begins and ends; it is, therefore, a material aid to clearness.

The fundamental ideas in the paragraph are unity and sequence. Its very nature forbids digressions and the introduction of irrelevant matter.

SUGGESTIONS.

112. (1) Make each main division of the outline the subject of a paragraph. To the writer who has constructed a good preliminary outline, the work of paragraphing is simple and easy. Each main division of the outline gives the subject of a distinct paragraph, so that the sentences written under this head are simply to be grouped together, and the paragraph is formed. Without an outline, however, the work of paragraphing becomes difficult, if not impossible.

113. (2) Let the opening sentence indicate the subject of the paragraph. This will often consist merely in putting

the outline heading into the form of a declarative sentence. Skill should be used here to conceal the formal divisions. Because a house must have a framework, it does not follow that all or any of the timbers are to be visible from the outside. "Art is to conceal art."

114. (3) Make the opening sentence short. The attention and the interest of the reader must be secured before he is willing to wind through the mazes of a long sentence.

115. (4) Let the bearing of each sentence upon what precedes be clear and positive. This end will be secured if the outline is logical and complete. The smaller subdivisions will often give the subjects of sentences under the main head.

116. (5) Connect the sentences of the paragraph smoothly. -This most important requisite can be secured only by thoughtful practice. To master the art of smooth connection is to insure an elegant style. Disconnectedness is to be avoided on the one side, and pleonasm on the other.

(a) The Cumulative conjunctions-" and," "also," again," "besides," "likewise," "further," etc.-connect a new statement when its bearing is similar to that of the preceding.

(b) The Adversative conjunctions - "but," "still," "only," "yet," "however," "nevertheless," etc.-indicate the mutual relation of consecutive sentences.

(c) The Illative conjunctions-"therefore," "accordingly," ," "hence," "consequently," etc.-express a relation of effect or consequence.

While these distinctions appear so simple as almost to need no mention, it is well, before using a conjunction of either class, to apply to the clause in question the tests here given.

In some cases connectives are purposely omitted. This is admissible especially where one sentence iterates or explains its predecessor, where the statements are cumulative, and where a statement of consequence is foreseen from the statement of the antecedent. Campbell remarks that