circumstances should be excluded, so all those that are strictly relevant should be included. Some otherwise admirable narratives have been justly criticised for their incompleteness. "What became of such a one ?" asks the reader after finishing a certain story. The simple fact that the question is asked is evidence that the narrative is not complete. And here, again, is seen the importance of an outline. By constructing a preliminary framework, the writer can easily arrange so as not to admit more elements into his narrative than he can fairly dispose of in the time allowed. The practice, sometimes followed, of purposely breaking off abruptly in the midst of a story has only the merit that belongs to mere novelty.

8. Imaginative narration; the plot must be plausible. Perhaps no other method of cultivating the imagination is so fruitful as that of narrating imaginary events. Indeed, by this process, nearly every faculty of the mind is brought into healthful action. The outline or "plot" of such a narrative, as it is technically called, does not differ materially from that of a narrative of real events: the one represents what is past and real; the other what is possible. The first requisite in such a narrative is that of plausibility. The writer must constantly ask himself what action, what speech, what results would be natural and reasonable under certain imagined circumstances. It is here that the element of suspense can be used with most striking effect. common occurrences of daily life are generally too simple and too distinct to permit the writer to arrange them into any strong climax; but once exchange fact for fancy, and he may weave and interweave the threads of his tale till the reader is lured into a delightful uncertainty concerning the outcome; an uncertainty that intensifies his interest till all is made plain by one grand catastrophe.

The

9. Historical narration; use summaries and backward references. In the more dignified and extended forms of narration, such as history, biography, and the like, clearness and force are gained by frequent summaries and back

ward references, placed, respectively at the beginning and end of successive chapters. Thus, Motley introduces his "Rise of the Dutch Republic" by rapidly reviewing the history of the Netherlands during the previous sixteen centuries; and in concluding his first chapter he summarizes as follows:

"Thus in this rapid sketch of the course and development of the Netherland nation during sixteen centuries, we have seen it ever marked by one prevailing characteristic, one master passion -the love of liberty, the instinct of self-government. Largely compounded of the bravest Teutonic elements, Batavian and Frisian, the race ever battles to the death with tyranny, organizes extensive revolts in the age of Vespasian, maintains a partial independence even against the sagacious dominion of Charlemagne, refuses in Friesland to accept the papal yoke or feudal chain, and throughout the dark ages struggles resolutely towards the light, wresting from a series of petty sovereigns a gradual and practical recognition of the claims of humanity."

Again, the author of that remarkable work, "Ecce Homo," introduces a chapter as follows:

"Of the three parts into which our investigation is divided, Christ's Call, his Legislation, and his Divine Royalty or relation to Jehovah, the first is now completed. We have considered the nature of the Call, its difference from that which was given to Abraham, the means which were taken to procure a body of men such as might suitably form the foundation of a new and unique Commonwealth, and the nature of the obligations they incurred in accepting the Call."

Other writers, especially in tracing genealogies, etc., borrow from the methods of Description and make use of some type or symbol, like that of a tree.

This ninth suggestion would seem practically to concern only those writers who are to make literature a life work; but such is not the case. The narration of the simplest series of real events may be essentially a history, and may be greatly aided by this use of reviews, summaries, and types.

10. Keep concurring series distinct. Finally, where the occurrences are at all complicated, great care must be given to keep concurring series perfectly distinct. There is no readier means of confusion than to mingle related

streams of events in the mind of the reader before the actual point of commingling has been reached.

Summary. In order vividly to reproduce past occurrences, then, the scene should be distinct and unchanged; the narrative should verge toward a climax or "catastrophe;" notice should be given of any change of scene; the writer should follow the natural order of events; each occurrence should, if possible, help to explain its successor; the natural order may be violated, within limits, for the sake of suspense; the narrative should be complete; if imaginary, the plot should be plausible; if historical, it should be aided by summaries and backward references, and concurring series of events should be kept distinct.

CHAPTER V.

EXPOSITION.

EXPOSITION may be defined, practically, as the statement and discussion of the essential attributes of some abstract or general theme. If all the essential attributes are discussed, the exposition is called "complete ;" if only certain selected attributes are discussed, the exposition is called "partial." Hill says,* "Exposition consists in such an analysis of a general term as will make clear to the mind the general notion of which it is the sign." Similarly, Bain defines exposition to be "the mode of handling applicable to knowledge or information in the form of what is called the sciences."

SUGGESTIONS.

With Exposition in its strict scientific sense, the young writer has little to do. Only years of experience and profound study can enable a man wisely to enter the field of scientific discussion. The narrower field of partial exposition, however, is perhaps the most popular of all the forms of composition among undergraduates. Of the twentyone actual subjects quoted in Chapter I. (Part III.) every one may fairly be classed under Exposition. The suggestions under this head must be mainly negative. 1. Careful information necessary. quently employed, there is no kind

*Science of Rhetoric," p. 95.

Although most freof composition that

+"Rhetoric," p. 185.

demands such careful and exhaustive reading, study, and definition. In no other field is there such danger of mistaking trite commonplaces and aphorisms for real, original thought. Vagueness and lack of point are the characteristics of too many expository essays. Of course this vagueness is largely due to the common failure to narrow down the expository theme, as illustrated on pages 242-3.

2. Avoid confounding with other forms. As a matter of fact, essays in exposition will often be found to contain much of pure description and narration; but while some Description may be necessary in exposition, it should be limited to the least amount required. For example, an essay on "Public Opinion," if intended to be expository, does not need to contain the history of public opinion since the founding of Rome, nor pen-pictures of Grecian institutions.

3. Suggestive questions. The accurate treatment of a theme in exposition is so rare, and apparently so difficult to the young writer, that a few suggestive questions may be helpful. "Of almost any abstract subject," says Haven,* "it may wisely be asked: Where is it found? How far does it extend? How long has it existed? How great is its power? Is it useful or pernicious? If both, where and why is it the one, and when and why the other? Is it often confounded with some other subject? If so, what, and why, and how? Is it connected with human conduct, and how? How does it appear by illustration and comparison with other subjects?" etc. etc.

4. Character sketches; avoid confounding with biography. Of the different varieties of exposition, two have been found most satisfactory in undergraduate work. The first of these is the exposition of some historical or fictitious character. The constant and common danger here is that of confounding the exposition with narration in the form of mere biography. The pupil flies to the encyclopædias,

"* Rhetoric,” p. 330.