coolness of autumnn. "At first," he says, "persons sickened and died owing to the unwholesomeness of the place; afterwards the disease spread by infection, so that those who were seized were neglected or abandoned, and died, or their attendants contracted the disease." Nor is there anything in Thucydides' description of the plague at Athens that leads to a different conclusion.†

Of all American writers who have written on epidemics the one who has most fully investigated their causes is Noah Webster. It is true that some of his theories are rather fanciful; but in general the conclusions at which he arrives are sound. Mr. Webster carries his "pestilential principle" a little too far, for he attributes to it the origin, not only of epidemics, but also of earthquakes, volcanoes, and meteors; and he is of opinion that it is strongly influenced by comets. "All the comets," he says, "which have approached this earth in their passage to and from the sun, especially those which have passed very near us, have been preceded, attended, and followed by most extraordinary effects, as great heat and drought in summer, and severe cold in winter; deluging rains, violent tempests and unusual tides. They occur so uniformly with the appearance of these bodies, and for some months preceding and following, as to leave no room to question the influence from which they proceed."‡

This is attributing rather much to the comets; at the same time, the author must not be sneered at for it, although the most eminent astronomers and physicians of the present day deny that those bodies exercise any appreciable influence for good or evil, either on the earth or its inhabitants. We are bound to remember that astronomers and physicians of much greater eminence entertained the opposite view, including Kepler and Boerhaave. It is true that neither regarded the comets as entirely so potent in their influence on the earth as Noah Webster maintains, but both, and many others, believed that they certainly cause some "commo

*Livy, lib. xxv. 26.

† De Bello Pelopon., lib. 11.

Brief Hist. of Epidem. & Pestilent. Diseases, vol. ii. p. 22.

tions" on the earth. But altogether independently of the views of others on the subject, the opinion of Webster is entitled to consideration, from the careful and extensive researches of which it is the result; for he presents us an accurate historical account of all the great pestilences, ancient and modern, on record, together with a large mass of statistics and other facts illustrative of their characteristics. Those who have not taken such pains, but merely depend on what others think, have no right to condemn a conclusion arrived at by such means. But whether Webster is right or wrong in his opinion of the influence of comets, it is certain that there is much force in his reasoning on the cause of epidemics. "One thing," he says, "is very evident; that what I denominate a pestilential principle does at certain times pervade, not only the element of air, but the water also. The proofs of this are abundantly numerous and convincing. In all the great plagues which have afflicted the human race, other animals, as horses, cattle, sheep, sometimes cats, dogs, and fowls, together with the fish in rivers and the ocean, and even vegetables, have borne their share in the calamity. The pestilential principle has extended to every species of life. The beasts of the field perish with deadly epidemics; the fish die on the bottom of rivers and the sea, or become lean and sickly; while corn is blasted on the most fertile plains, and the fruits in gardens and orchards wither, or fail to arrive at their usual state of perfection."*

These are strange facts; to many almost incredible; but they are nevertheless true. What then becomes of the "stamping out" theory of our modern boards of health? It may be very absurd to attribute our epidemics to the comets; but it is hardly less so to attribute them to the condition of the streets and of the houses of the poor in large cities. That this condition exercises a powerful influence is, as we have already remarked, very true. Filth not only increases the virulence of a disease when it exists; it frequently engenders disease. But it is by no means the sole cause of epidemics; it can hardly be pretended that it is filth that causes pesti

* Hist. of Epidemics, vol. ii. p. 153.

lences among cattle alike on extensive plains and mountains; it is not filth that causes the birds of the air to die by thousands; it is not filth that produces a similar mortality among the fish of the sea; much less is it filth that causes vegetables to wither with mildew; for even the most disgusting kinds of it rather improve than injure them.

It is, indeed, highly laudable to encourage cleanliness among the poor; neither the lawgiver nor the moralist can devote his energies to a better object; for whoever teaches people to observe cleanliness in their habits elevates their tastes, and consequently their aspirations. The most pious commentators on the Bible admit that the laws of Moses, which enjoin cleanliness as a religious duty, were promulgated with a view to their moral and sanitary influence. At the same time, Moses does not say, like our modern philosophers, that cleanliness affords protection from epidemics; and much less does the great lawgiver pretend that epidemics can be "stamped out" according to the modern fashion. The history of those diseases proves that in a thousand instances they have committed their ravages in towns and cities at periods when most attention was paid to cleanliness; whereas, upon the other hand, the same towns and cities have enjoyed complete immunity when most filthy.

It is well known that the most contagious and malignant diseases have often ceased their ravages as suddenly as they made their attacks-filth having accumulated in the meantime. This has occurred at all seasons; during the heat of summer as well as the cold of winter. Even the cholera has disappeared from many large and crowded cities in the hottest weather, although, in general, heat seems favorable to its propagation. The plague, the most malignant and contagious of all diseases, has often disappeared with equal suddenness, and during the accumulation of an unusual amount of filth. When it first appeared in London the magistrates issued an order, which was approved by the College of Physicians, for the strict imprisonment of the sick, or of those supposed to be sick, in their own houses. This was accomplished by watchmen, who attended night and day at the doors or the infected houses, and this was continued for at least a

month after all the inmates were dead or recovered. In order that all should avoid the doomed house it was ordered to be "marked with a red cross of a foot long, in the middle of the door, evident to be seen, and with these usual printed words, that is to say, Lord have mercy upon us, to be set close over the same cross, there to continue until the lawful opening of the same house.” *

This cruel and barbarous treatment would seem incredible were it not fully attested by historians. "From that moment,” says Lingard, "the house was closed; all egress for the space of one month was inexorably refused, and the wretched inmates were doomed to remain under the same roof, communicating death one to another. Of these many sunk under the horrors of their situation; others, driven by despair, eluded the vigilance or corrupted the fidelity of the watchmen, and by their escape, instead of avoiding, served to disseminate the contagion." +

During the months of July and August "the weather was sultry, the heat more and more oppressive." It was therefore generally thought that the plague was caused by the unusual heat, and accordingly it was expected that as soon as the weather grew cool the pestilence would disappear. Experience proved, however, that this was a mistake. September came," says Lingard; "the heat of the atmosphere began to abate; but contrary to expectation, the mortality increased. Formerly a hope of recovery might be indulged; now infection was the certain harbinger of death, which fol lowed generally in the course of three days, often within the space of twenty-four hours." +

It may be said that this increased virulence and destructiveness was caused by the accumulated filth. That the filth had accumulated is beyond doubt; but it is equally unquestionable that it was not the sole or even the chief cause of this increase. More than ten thousand persons died during

*Orders by the Lord Mayor and Aldermen concerning the Infection of the Plague, 1665.

Lingard's Hist. of England, O'Shea's edition, New York, vol. xi. p. 283. + Ib., p. 286.

the week ending September 20-a much larger mortality than that of any week during the sultry, oppressive heat of summer. Even the authorities began to despair at seeing the disease spreading and becoming more and more fatal as the weather became cool; and if they had been ever so energetically inclined, it was impossible to get men for love or money to clean the infected streets. But while despair pervaded all classes, the disease suddenly ceased its ravages; so that in a few weeks those who fled with terror began to return with joy and confidence. 66 Many who made most haste in retiring," says Dr. Hodges, "made the most to return, and came into the city without fear; the houses which were before full of the dead, were now again inhabited by the living; the shops which had been most part of the year shut up, were again opened, and the people again cheerfully went about their wonted affairs of trade and employ; and even what is almost beyond belief, those citizens who before were afraid even of their friends and relations, would, without fear, venture into the houses and rooms where infected persons had but a little before breathed their last; nay, such comforts did inspire the languishing people, and such confidence, that many went into the beds where persons had died, before they were even cold, or cleansed from the stench of the diseased." *

There was no "stamping out" here; the most ordinary precautions were neglected, yet the disease continued to decline, and in a short time disappeared altogether; thus fully verifying the views of Hippocrates, Galen, Sydenham, &c. The Occult and inexplicable changes" had taken place in the atmosphere; the "pestilential principle" had become exhausted, the atmosphere had resumed its normal condition, and the public health was restored. It is true that this restoration took place earlier in clean districts than in those in which cleanliness was neglected; in other words, the disease continued to rage in filthy districts long after it had entirely disappeared in districts in which cleanliness was observed. Individuals also who were cleanly and temperate in their habits were much less liable to the disease than those

'Loimologia,

or Historical Account of the Plague in 1665. By Dr. Hodges.