English, for these last two centuries, have exercised upon each other. Every body, of course, must admit, that if to the causes of hatred already specified, there be added the additional cause of religious distinction, this last will give greater force (and what is of more consequence to observe, give a name) to the whole aggregate motive. But what Mr Parnell contends for is, and clearly and decisively proves is, that many of those sanguinary scenes attributed to the Catholic religion, are to be partly imputed to causes totally disconnected from religion; that the unjust invasion, and the tyrannical, infamous policy of the English, are to take their full share of blame with the sophisms and plots of Catholic priests. In the reign of Henry the Eighth, Mr Parnell shows, that feudal submission was readily paid to him by all the Irish chiefs; that the reformation was received without the slightest opposition; and that the troubles which took place at that period in Ireland, are to be entirely attributed to the ambi tion and injustice of Henry. In the reign of Queen Mary, there was no recrimination upon the Protestants ;-a striking proof, that the bigotry of the Catholic religion had not, at that peiod, risen to any great height in Ireland. The insurrections of the various Irish princes were as numerous during this reign as they had been in the two preceding reigns; a circumstance rather difficult of explanation, if, as is commonly believed, the Catholic religion was at that period the main spring of men's actions.

In the reign of Elizabeth, the Catholic in the pale regularly fought against the Catholic out of the pale. O'Sullivan, a bigotted Papist, reproaches them with doing so. Speaking of the reign of James the First, (he says), And now the eyes even of the English Irish' (the Catholics of the pale) were opened, and they cursed their former folly for helping the heretic." The English Government were so sensible of the loyalty of the Irish English Catholics, that they entrusted them with the most confidential services. The Earl of Kildare was the principal instrument in waging war against the chieftains of Leix and Offal. William O'Bourge, another Catholic, was created Lord Castle Connel for his eminent services; and MacGullay Patrick, a priest, was the state spy. We presume that this wise and manly conduct of Queen Elizabeth was utterly unknown both to the Pastry-cook and the Secretary of State, who have published upon the dangers of employing Catholics even against foreign enemies; and in those publications have said a great deal about the wisdom of our ancestors, the usual topic whenever the folly of their descendants is to be defended. To whatever other of our ancestors they may allude, they may spare all compliments to this illustrious Princess, who would certainly have kept the worthy Confectioner to the

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composition of tarts, and most probably furnished him with the productions of the Right Honourable Secretary, as the means of Conveying those juicy delicacies to an hungry and discerning public.

In the next two reigns, Mr Parnell shows by what injudicious measures of the English Government the spirit of Catholic opposition was gradually formed; for, that it did produce powerful effects at a subsequent period, he does not deny; but contends only, (as we have before stated), that these effects have been much overrated, and ascribed solely to the Catholic religion, when other causes have at least had an equal agency in bringing them about. He concludes with some general remarks on the dreadful state of Ireland, and the contemptible folly and bigotry of the English; remarks full of truth, of good sense, and of political courage. How melancholy to reflect, that there would be still some chance of saving England from the general wreck of empires, but that it may not be saved, because one politician will lose two thousand a year by it, and another three thousand, a third a place in reversion, and a fourth a pension for his aunt! Alas! these are the powerful causes which have always settled the destiny of great, kingdoms, and which may level Old England, with all its boasted freedom, and boasted wisdom, to the dust. Nor is it the least singular among the political phenomena of the present day, that the sole consideration which seems to influence the unbigotted part of the English people, in this great question of Ireland, is a regard for the personal feelings of the Monarch. Nothing is said or thought of the enormous risk to which Ireland is exposed,nothing of the gross injustice with which the Catholics are treated,-nothing of the lucrative apostasy of those from whom they experience this treatment; but the only concern by which we all seem to be agitated is, that the King must not be vexed in his old age. We have a great respect for the King; and wish him all the happiness compatible with the happiness of his people; but these are not times to pay foolish compliments to Kings, or the sons of Kings, or to any body else: this Journal has always preserved its character for courage and honesty, and it shall do so. to the last. If the people of this country are solely occupied in considering what is personally agreeable to the King, without considering what is for his permanent good, and for the safety of his do minions; if all public men, quitting the common vulgar scramble for emolument, do not concur in conciliating the people of Ireland; if the unfounded alarms, and the comparatively trifling interests

* It would be as well, in future, to fay no more of the revocation of the edict of Nantz.

interests of the clergy, are to supersede the great question of freedom or slavery, it does appear to us quite impossible that so mean and so foolish a people can escape that destruction which is ready to burst upon them ;-a destruction so immipent, that it can only be averted by arming all in our defence who would evidently be sharers in our ruin, and by such a change of system as may save us from the hazard of being ruined by the ignorance and cowardice of any general, by the bigotry or the ambition of any minister, or by the well-meaning scruples of any human being, let his dignity be what it may. These minor and domestic dangers we must endeavour firmly and temperately to avert as we best can; but, at all hazards, we must keep out the destroyer from among us, or perish like wise and brave men in the attempt.

ART. V. Caroli à Linné Species Plantarum, exhibentes Plantas rite cognitas, ad Genera relatas cum differentibus Specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonimis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum Systema Sexuale digestes, editio quarta, post Reichardiamam quinta, adjectis vegetabilibus hucusque eognitis, curante Carolo Ludovico Willdenow. Berolini impensis G. C. Nank, 1797, already published 3 vol. Svo. in 7 parts, and part of the 4th. pp. 5,946.

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HE former of these works cannot fail to be an acceptable present to all proficients in botany, on account of its containing so many of the plants lately discovered, arranged according to a system with which they have been long familiar. The latter, as an introduction to botanical studies, forms an useful manual for those who are desirous of acquiring a knowledge of the vegetable kingdom.

The Species Plantarum, which began to be published in 1797, is not yet complete; but the eight parts which have come into our hands, reaching the length of the class Monacia inclusive, are sufficient to enable us to form an opinion of the merits of the work.

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It contains not only the plants described by Linnæus, (as the title imports), but likewise such of those discovered since the death of that eminent naturalist, as Mr Willdenow has been able, on good grounds, to reduce to their proper place in the Linnæan system,

If the utility of botanical studies be at all granted, the advantages of a systematic arrangement of vegetables will be readily admitted. It is true, that the greatest part of those who are employed in cultivating the soil, may go on from year to year,

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raising their wheat, clover, and potatoes, without troubling their heads about the class or order, the genus or species, to which their crops may be referred. Many medical practitioners also may be usefully employed during a long life, in administering opium, rhubarb, and senna, provided they know the proper doses of each, and the cases in which they ought to be employed, without knowing, or caring to know, that one is the inspissated juice of the Papaver somniferum, and the other the root of the Rheum palmatum. It is true, in like manner, that many artists are indebted to different machines, the mechanism of which they do not understand. Thousands make use of clocks and watches, who know nothing about pendulums or escapements, and who would be very much disposed to laugh at those who trouble themselves about such matters. But in spite of all this, there are some very good sort of people in the world, who think there may be some use in the study of botany and mechanics.

Though agriculture and medicine, the two professions which are usually thought to derive most benefit from the knowledge of botany, may be prosecuted without any acquaintance with methodical arrangement, yet, he who thinks of making improvements in either, by introducing into cultivation or practice, vegetables which have not formerly been attended to, or which may have been successfully cultivated or employed by others at a distance, would wish, in the one case, to be able to point out the species on which he had made his experiments, and in the other, to ascer tain the particular plant, the cultivation or use of which he was ambitious of introducing. But besides all those to whom such knowledge may be useful, there are many worthy people who study botany merely for amusement, who would give a great deal for such a systematic arrangement as would enable them, with facility and precision, to reduce any plant to its genus and speWe shall take a short view, therefore, of what has been done towards accomplishing that object, that, from a knowledge of what has already been effected by the labours of others, some estimate may be formed of the obligations the lovers of botany lye under to Mr Willdenow.

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The utility of many vegetables as articles of food, &c. the beauty and striking appearance of others, must have attracted the notice of men at a very early period; but until their virtues in curing diseases and healing wounds was discovered, it is scarcely to be supposed, that any great anxiety would be felt even for an accurate description of them. This, perhaps, is the principal reason, why, in almost all those nations with whose early history we are acquainted, physicians have been the first botanists. Indeed, had we a more intimate acquaintance with

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the history of the Jews and Carthaginians, we might have said all, and neither made an exception of the Royal Botanist, who treated of all plants, from the lofty cedar which adorns Lebanon, down to the diminutive vegetables which disfigure walls; nor of the Carthaginian Mago, who wrote twentyeight books de re Rustica, which were thought worthy of being transferred to Rome, among the other valuable spoils of Carthage, and were translated from the Punic into the Latin language, by order of the Senate.

While the number of ascertained useful vegetables was small, those to whom they were known would point them out to their disciples, who, in that way, would become acquainted with their general appearances, and other sensible properties: But, when accidental discoveries, quackery, and intercourse between neighbouring nations, had augmented their number considerably, the necessity of accurate descriptions would become apparent."

Among the Greeks, though herbs were employed as medicines long before the Trojan war, and Cadmus had furnished the means of conveying their discoveries to posterity, yet many centuries elapsed before any writer appeared, who deserved the name of a botanist. Theophrastus the favourite disciple of Aristotle, who succeeded him in the direction of the Peripatetic school, and inherited his library, is the first author whose works have reached us, who obtained that appellation. Pythagoras, Hyppocrates, Cratejas, Aristotle, and many others, had treated indeed of vegetables before him; but their writings are either partly, or entirely lost, or contain but little of importance.

Of the ten books which Theophrastus wrote on botany, nine have been preserved, containing an account of more than 500 vegetables, which he divides into trees, shrubs, and herbs, a very humble attempt at methodical arrangement; yet, singular as it 'may appear, this clumsy distribution of vegetables prevailed, even among botanists, from his time, till near the end of the 17th century, and for some time cramped the first efforts made towards establishing a more perfect arrangement. His descriptions, as was indeed to be expected, are still more imperfect than his arrangement; for much more attention is required to detect those distinguishing marks by which closely allied genera or species are to be discriminated, than to trace general resemblances. Had he been aware, that all the trouble he had taken to point out the uses of the vegetables of which he treated, would have been lost for want of such descriptions as might ena ble his readers to recognize them, he probably would have bestowed more pains on that subject, and botany might have received more early improvement.

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