of the ordinary self of the ordinary American." 633 How is the attitude What is the critic's expressed? Compare it with Mr. Croly's "Lincoln as more than an American." 209. Like the story. This is an allusion to something that has in this essay. "divine average." Walt Whitman, 66 155. gone before Starting from Paumanok," line Wandering through exhumed Pompeii, etc. These references to Mark Twain's foreign impressions are all to be found in "Innocents Abroad," where they are easily located. 210. Corporal Nym, a character in " favorite phrase see Act ii, Scene 1. Henry V." For his use of this the glory that was Greece, etc. Poe, "To Helen " (1831). Lord Chesterfield (1694-1773), noted for the elegance of his manners. His "Letters to his Son" constitute a code of worldly conduct in which the social graces assume great importance. Count D'Orsay (1801-1852), a noted wit and dandy. Walter Savage Landor (1775-1864). His poetry and prose is characterized by classical elegance of form. See Walt Whitman, "As I Sat Alone by Blue 66 Fear grace Fear elegance, civilization, 211. Fear grace, etc. Ontario's Shore," line 47: delicatesse." -- Tom Paine (1737-1809). His writing was a prominent force during both the American and the French Revolutions. 212. Robert Ingersoll (1833-1899), a celebrated American freethinker. 213. The level of the address at Gettysburg. See p. 304. "O Beautiful! my Country!" Lowell, "Commemoration Ode." in the dead vast, etc. Cf." and middle of the night." Hamlet," Act i, Scene 2: "In the dead vast the firing of a national joke, etc. Completion of the Battle Monument": Cf. Emerson's "Hymn Sung at the "Here once the embattled farmers stood And fired the shot heard round the world." Topics: Medieval knighthood as seen in Scott's romances, Shakespeare's Henry V" as an expression of British patriotism, Nathaniel Hawthorne and Puritanism, Rudyard Kipling and Imperialism, Socialistic ideals in the novels of H. G. Wells, An analysis of the sectional flavor in some American story writer - O. Henry, Mary E. Wilkins Freeman, Sarah Orne Jewett, Thomas Nelson Page, George W. Cable, Hamlin Garland. Turner's "Slave Ship." The description of Turner's "Slave Ship" by Ruskin corresponds to the review of a literary work. convey an idea of the design, the composition, the color and the total The critic aims to impression of the painting. Note the extent to which precise detail is employed and how this detail is transformed by means of the highly poetic vocabulary. Examine the rhythm of the sentences and see if they conform to Stevenson's requirement (p. 626) of avoiding metrical regularity. Observe the endings of the two paragraphs: "The desolate heave of the sepulchral waves, es,||incarnadines the multitudinous sea"; "the open, deep illimitable sea." The poetic effect is here emphasized by the mingling of Shakespeare's language, and perhaps Milton's, with Ruskin's own glowing phrases. One of the expressions is a bold transcription from “Macbeth,” Act ii, Scene 2: "the multitudinous seas incarnadine "; another may have been suggested by "Paradise Lost," II, 892: "a dark, illimitable ocean without bound." Turner, J. M. W. (1775-1851), the greatest of English landscape painters. Ruskin wrote his first important book, "Modern Painters," for the purpose of vindicating the greatness of Turner's art in comparison with the classical French and Italian painters. The Classical Landscapes of Claude. This is a coldly analytical account of an artist to whom Ruskin apparently tries to do justice though he does not admire him. Compare the detailed descriptions of Claude's two canvases with the description of "The Slave Ship." Compare the accompanying illustration to determine the truthfulness of Ruskin in detail and in the general spirit. Criticise the paragraphing of the entire selection. Claude Gelée, also called Claude of Lorraine, 1600-1682. 216. Salvator Rosa (1615-1673), noted as a painter of wild and rugged landscapes. EDITORIALS The editorial is a kind of essay; it is usually a paragraph or more of comment based upon current events or conditions. The term is so loosely used, however, that what is called an editorial may be any one of many kinds of writing, including among others: (1) a summary of news with brief comment, (2) a statement of facts with explanation, (3) a statement of fact with interpretation, (4) a generalization from apparently unrelated matters, (5) a character sketch or biographical notice, (6) an analysis, for purposes of argument, of opinions or arguments presented in current discussion, (7) a deductive application of fundamental principles to current events or problems, (8) a short, informal argument, (9) a brief essay on any topic, social, political, or literary, which is timely and likely to interest the readers. Its aim is to give instruction, to form or direct public opinion, or to induce action based on conviction or feeling, or on both. In general, then, the editorial aims to make clear the significance of current events or conditions and to create or direct opinion based upon the realization of that significance. The writer of editorials has the advantage of abundant and varied topics and of potential interest on the part of the reader. He must, though, carefully consider his purpose and his readers and adapt his remarks to both. He must write clearly and reasonably, and must be sure not only that he understands fully both facts and principles involved, but also that his opinion is not merely individual, but such as to offer to the generality of readers some common ground of agreement. To which class mentioned does each editorial in this book belong? Are the following selections in other parts of the book editorials? "Mark Twain," "The Case Against the Single Tax," "Professor Huxley's Lectures,' The Mathematician and the Engineer,” “Is Agriculture Decliuing? "Direct Presidential Nominations." Select from newspapers or magazines two or three specimens to illustrate each kind mentioned. ARGUMENT A formal argument consists theoretically of Introduction, Body, and Conclusion. The introduction is expository in tone and should contain (1) a statement of the significance of the question, (2) a presentation of whatever facts and explanations may be needful for an intelligent understanding of the discussion, (3) a statement of the opposing views which give the occasion for a debate. (4) Possibly in such a statement some differences of opinion will turn out to be only apparent, or it may be worth while, in any case, to point out what is held in common by both sides; but the culmination of the introduction should be (5) the resolution of the conflicting opinions into a few precisely phrased questions, which are called Special Issues. The Body of the argument then takes up the Special Issues one by one and adduces evidence either in support or refutation, while the Conclusion may sum up the argument, particularly if the discussion has been a long one, or again emphasize the importance of the issue. An illustration of an argument according to the plan just outlined may be seen in the student Brief on the Hetch-Hetchy question in Appendix I. But it will be found in practice that argument very rarely conforms precisely to such a rigid scheme, and often departs from it very widely. The argument proper may, for example, invade the introduction when a statement of facts carries with it an implied weight of proof, or the reverse process may be followed, as when certain explanations of fact are withheld till they can serve effectively to support a contention. A brief, like the model mentioned, is always desirable, but in writing out the argument one may gain in naturalness, in grace, and in persuasive effectiveness by concealing the stiff skeleton. It is not the happiest method of expanding briefs which merely rewrites the original statements in longer lines. 636 INTRODUCTION The Three Hypotheses. Huxley's object in the series of lectures in- 232. Pascal, Blaise (1623-1662), French mathematician and philosopher. Lyell, Sir Charles (1797-1875), British geologist. 236. the English Divina Commedia. See note on Dante, p. 622. 238. undifferentiated protoplasmic matter. See "On the Physical Basis Letter to General McClellan. Notice that this brief series of The Case against the Single Tax. What elements of an introduction does Tax see p. 13. For an introduction with full definitions and elaborate historical material Topics: The encouragement of a United States merchant marine, The EVIDENCE Council Government. This is a section of an argument which should ing the necessity of being on one's guard against hasty conclusions. It is the fallacy of post hoc ergo propter hoc which the writer uncovers. Because certain improvements have followed on certain changes it does not follow necessarily that the improvements are due to the changes. The writer refutes the assumption in a general way and then proceeds to adduce detailed evidence to confirm the doubts which he has raised in the first part of the article. Observe the method of substantiating statements of fact by reference to sources and authorities. Professor Huxley's Lectures. See "The Three Hypotheses," p. 232. This article is important for its lesson in the use of the argument from authority. Young writers are especially prone to attribute weight to opinions without regard to a particular person's qualification for holding an opinion. Mr. Godkin advances his principle in the fourth paragraph, but it is his thorough and unflinching application of the test to an educated and highly respected class of persons that affords the happiest possible illustration of the necessity for examining the credentials of a witness before he is admitted into court. Study the use of authorities in the "Defence of the House of Lords " (p. 271), "The Intellectual Powers of Woman (p. 276), "The Nation's Pledge (p. 223), and in the student Brief in Appendix I. 249. Moody, D. L. (1837–1899), a popular Evangelical preacher. 250. Professor Tyndall, John (1820-1893), the eminent naturalist who ranks close to Darwin and Huxley among the propagators of evolutionary doctrine. 257. Principal Dawson, Sir John William (1820-1899), Principal at McGill University in Montreal, was by profession a geologist but occasionally wrote on the relation of geology to theology. St. George Mivart (1827-1900), a distinguished biologist who attempted to reconcile the theory of evolution with his Catholic faith. BODY Speech on Old-Age Pensions. This is a speech delivered in the course of a Parliamentary debate. The introduction here is not of the usual kind, being intended only to link on to the preceding speech. The speaker, however, takes care to state what seem to him to be the important questions involved. Are the objections to the various features of the measure sufficiently substantiated? Find out something about the speaker by which you may test his fitness for expressing such opinions as he advances. Examine the speech as an example of oral English. Notice its graceful fluency, its tone of easy but dignified conversation, its refined moderation unalloyed with any rhetorical flourishes. Look up some of the speeches in the Congressional Record for comparison. Examine the structure of the speech in connection with the outline of the editors. Notice the ease of the logical transitions. |