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ROGET, PETER MARK.

the peculiar connection in which he stood, in virtue both of his longevity and his social position and habits, with the miscellaneous phenomena, and especially with the art and literature of his time. His poetry is of the highly finished and tasteful rather than the powerful kind. "We have in his works," says a critic, "a classic and graceful beauty; no slovenly or obscure lines; fine cabinet pictures of soft and mellow lustre, and occasionally trains of thought and association that awaken or recall tender and heroic feelings." His relations to his time were less those of active influence than those of shrewd observation and interesting reminiscence. They are best exhibited in the volume of his Table Talk,' published, since his death, by his friend Mr. Dyce. *ROGET, PETER MARK, an eminent physician and physiologist. He graduated in medicine at Edinburgh in 1798, and practised in Manchester, where he obtained the appointment of Physician to the Infirmary, Lunatic Asylum, and Fever Hospital. He subsequently came to London, where he became known for his scientific taste, and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. He was afterwards made Secretary to the Royal Society, an office which he held for many years. On the foundation of the University of London, he was appointed a member of the Senate, and was for some years one of the examiners in physiology. He was early elected one of the Fullerian Lecturers on Physiology at the Royal Institution of Great Britain. He was the writer of one of the Bridgwater treatises, under the title 'Animal and Vegetable Physiology.' This work was published in 1834. He has contributed extensively to the general scientific literature of the day. The treatises on Electricity' and 'Magnetism,' in the Library of Useful Knowledge, were from his pen. He contributed the article on the Deaf and Dumb to the Encylopædia Britannica,' and the articles Age' and 'Asphyxia' to the Cyclopædia of Practical Medicine.' In 1838 he published a Treatise on Physiology and Phrenology.' In 1833 he delivered the Gulstonian Lectures at the Royal College of Physicians, which were published in the Medical Gazette.' Besides these larger works, he has published many papers on medical and scientific subjects in the Transactions of the Medico-Chirurgical Society,' in the 'Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society,' in the 'Proceedings of the Royal Institution,' and other publications.

Dr. Roget is a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, and Consulting Physician to the Queen Charlotte Lying-in Hospital, and the Northern Dispensary. A Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases,' published by him in 1852, has reached its 18th edition.

ROHAULT, JAMES, was the son of a merchant at Amiens, where he was born in 1620. He received the rudiments of a scientific education in that city, and was afterwards sent to Paris for the purpose of prosecuting his studies in philosophy.

In that age the physical works of Aristotle had begun to give place to those of Descartes, and most of the learned men in France received with complacency the explanation of the phenomena of Nature which were given in the Principia,' the 'Dioptrice,' and the 'Meteora' of their illustrious countryman. Rohault was one of those who diligently studied the writings of the Greek philosopher and of his numerous commentators, but who also applied himself with ardour to the productions of the new school, of which he professed to be a zealous disciple. This circumstance appears to have brought him to the notice of Clarselier, who, being himself a warm Cartesian, conceived so great a regard for the young philosopher, that he gave him his daughter in marriage, and engaged him to write a commentary on the works of the man who was the object of their common admiration. Rohault seems to have executed the task assigned to him in a manner which gratified the wishes of his patron and father-in-law, and in the spirit of an enthusiastic follower; for in the preface to his "Traité de Physique' he designates Descartes as a man who, by his works, had shown that France was capable of forming philosophers as illustrious as those of ancient Greece. This work was translated into Latin by Dr. Samuel Clarke, and published with notes, in which are given explanations of the principal phenomena agreeably to the philosophy of Newton, which, in a very few years, had entirely supplanted that of the French school. After the above-mentioned work was finished, Rohault appears to have been occupied for several years in giving instructions in mathematics, and the subjects of his lessons were published after his death in two volumes. The course comprehends geometry, both plane and practical; trigonometry, plane and spherical; fortification, mechanics, perspective, and arithmetic.

Besides the Traité de Physique,' Rohault published also a work entitled Entretiens sur la Philosophie,' consisting of a series of dialogues, in which the subjects are treated according to the Cartesian principles. He died in 1675.

ROLAND, MANON. MANON PHILIPON, for such was her maiden name, was born in Paris in 1754. Her father was an artist of moderate talent; her mother was a woman of superior understanding and of a singularly amiable temper. Manon learned to read so early and so easily as not to be able to recollect the process; and, having once learned to read, she read everything that came in her way. In her father's house she enjoyed to a certain extent the means of cultivating painting, music, and general literature, Whilst yet a girl she was, at her own earnest request, placed for one year in a conventual school. At this age her religious enthusiasm was extreme; in after-years it subsided, and her opinions, she confesses, went through every change until they

rested in scepticism-a result in some degree due to her course of reading. Her reading, under her father's roof, was in fact of a most miscellaneous description. The works of the fathers and the free writings of the 17th and 18th centuries were equally accessible to her, and perused with equal avidity; but the most powerful and lasting impression was made on her by an early familiarity with Plutarch's Lives of Illustrious Men.' From this time Greece and Rome were constantly present to her thoughts, and when she was fourteen years old she is said to have wept to think that she was not a Roman or a Spartan woman.

At the age of five-and-twenty she became the wife of M. Roland, a man twenty years her senior, of laborious habits, great ability and integrity, and manners described as of antique severity. A daughter was the fruit of this marriage, and Madame Roland's time became divided between the care of her child's education and giving assistance to her husband, from whose knowledge she derived great advantage in return. He held the office of Inspector of Manufactures, of which he fulfilled the duties in a liberal spirit, well according with the previous impressions of his enthusiastic partner. With him Madame Roland visited England, Switzerland, and other countries of Europe, everywhere industriously inquiring into the nature of the civil institutions, and manifesting the warmest sympathy with the advocates of political liberty. On witnessing the comforts enjoyed by the English cottagers, she is said to have observed, that in this country a handful of wealth did not constitute the nation, but that man, whatever his station, was reckoned as something.

The intense interest with which such a woman regarded the first movements of liberty in her own country, may easily be conceived. Her husband being appointed to represent the city of Lyon in the National Convention, left his residence near that city, and, accompanied by his wife, proceeded to Paris, where the curiosity of Madame Roland was gratified, and her zeal, if possible, increased, by the opportunity of observing some of the most distinguished actors on the political stage-as Mirabeau, Cazalés, Maury, Barnave, and others of less note. To the cause espoused by these notable persons Madame Roland and her husband were warmly attached; and, during the ministry of the party of the Gironde, Roland was appointed minister of the interior, for which his information, his assiduity, and his strict probity highly qualified him. It was, whilst holding this office, that he appeared at court with a round hat and strings to his shoes; and was regarded by the courtiers as a symbol of a monarchy about to fall. His sincere language was as unwelcome to the court as his plain attire was displeasing to the courtiers. The talents of his wife were at this time applied to assist him in the composition of public papers. Without pretending to direct him, she avows her belief that by mingling with the severer accents of patriotism the expressions and feelings of a woman of sensibility, she rendered these documents more impressive and effectual. The famous letter of M. Roland to Louis XVI. (May, 1792) was drawn up by her: a letter designated, according to the political feelings of the readers, as an enlightened although a severe remonstrance, or as audacious and full of evil prophecy. This production occasioned M. Roland's dismissal by the court; for which he was compensated by the warm applauses of the Convention. He again became a minister after the events of the 10th of August; but his party had then passed the bounds prescribed by his judgment, and entered upon extremes repugnant to his high-minded and generous wife. Still they were apparently favoured by their party, to whom Roland's character and popularity were necessary. Amidst the real and affected grossness of dress, manners, and language of the republicans, society preserved its respectability in the circle assembled round the table of the minister of the interior.

The events of the reign of terror do not require to be detailed. The frightful massacres in the prisons of Paris on the 2nd and 3rd of September, were boldly denounced by Roland in his capacity as minister; but the Convention, which applauded him, wanted courage, or virtue, or power to act upon his advice; and from that hour his own doom and that of his wife became only more certain. Madame Roland had herself been already arraigned before that assembly, on an absurd charge of treasonable correspondence with England; and by her presence of mind, her acuteness, and her wit, had baffled and mortified her accusers. The recollection of this defeat is said to have so haunted the minds of Marat, Danton, and Robespierre, that in every subsequent difficulty and in every attack made upon their proceedings, they imagined they recognised the boldness, sagacity, or sarcasm of Madame Roland. She and her husband began to receive warnings of their danger, and for a short time consented to take the precaution of not sleeping at the Hôtel of the Interior. The appearance of deception was little agreeable to Madame Roland. "I am ashamed," she said, on an occasion on which she had almost consented to leave her house in the dress of a peasant, "of the part I am made to play. I will neither disguise myself nor leave the house. If they wish to assassinate me, it shall be in my own home. This courageous example is due from me, and I will afford it." Her husband quitted Paris, and she might have done so, but she declared that the care of evading injustice cost her more than it would do to suffer from it.

The time arrived when the intellectual superiority hitherto maintained in the Convention by M. Roland's party, or the Girondists, was overcome by absolute force. Forty thousand men were marched

against the Convention, by the Jacobins, on the 31st of May 1793; and in the evening of the same day Madame Roland was arrested and thrown into the prison of the Abbaye. Here she displayed her usual firmness, and continued to exercise towards the poor and unfortunate a benevolence for which in her prosperous days she had been remarkable. Before her friends she appeared cheerful; she always maintained the language of a patriot when speaking of the aspect of affairs, flattering and fearing none; and she professed herself capable of overcoming her ill-fortune. In solitude the feelings of the wife and the mother overcame her, and the attendants remarked that she passed many hours in tears. Her sufferings were greatly aggravated by her being one day unexpectedly liberated, as if the danger was past. She drove home with extreme delight; sprung out of the coach, as she says it had always been her habit to do, but with more than usual vivacity; and was running gaily up stairs, when she was again arrested by an officer, and at once taken to Sainte Pelagie, a prison of a lower order than the Abbaye, where she was shut up with the worst of her sex. In this second prison she remained until her trial and execution. The only explanation given of this circumstance was that her first arrest had been illegal. The wretchedness of her situation at Sainte Pelagie was only alleviated by her literary occupations, and by the kindness of her gaolers or of their families, whom her fascinating manners and behaviour converted into friends. Well knowing that her life would be sacrificed, she devoted all her hours to the composition of her 'Memoirs,' writings full of lively description, entertaining anecdotes of her contemporaries, and remarks indicative of penetration and habitual reflection. A letter to her daughter, written in these circumstances, is one of the most affecting of farewells. But Madame Roland seldom gave way to melancholy emotions in her writings. Her pages detail the events of her childhood and youth with matchless sprightliness and grace; and, excepting in certain passages wherein candour is carried to an excess which modern delicacy would not permit to a female writer, her 'Memoirs' are models of that kind of composition. As the narrative advances, events of a deeper interest are related with great facility of expression, sometimes with mournful pathos, generally with great judgment, not always without satire, but always with easy eloquence. From a very early age we may discern in this relation the extraordinary decision of her character, her naturally commanding manners, her fervent but well-controlled temperament, her indefatigable love of improvement, and her unswerving adherence to truth. Several unhappy prisoners delivered themselves from certain execution by taking poison; and Madame Roland had at one time resolved to do the same. But communicating her resolution to a friend, who represented to her that a nobler course would be to wait for death, and leave the memory of so great a sacrifice to the cause for which she had lived, she calmly determined to abide the result.

It was in the month of October (1793) that the Girondists were destroyed. On the 31st of that month she was sent to the Conciergerie. On the 8th of November she appeared before the revolutionary tribunal. She had declined the proffered aid of M. Chauveau-Lagarde, the advocate of the Girondists, of the unfortunate queen, and of Charlotte Corday; knowing that no talents could save her, since her innocence could not, and not wishing to expose him to useless danger. Part of the night was occupied by her in writing an eloquent defence. Her courage did not desert her during her trial or at her execution. She sustained the insults of the unmanly tribunal, not without womanly emotion, but also with a dignity worthy of the greatest women of the times with which her early reading of Plutarch had made her familiar. To the last moment she preserved her presence of mind, and even her gaiety. On the same day and at the same hour a man was also to be guillotined; and in such extremity to die first being thought a privilege, she waived it in favour of her less courageous companion in misfortune; overcoming the scruples of the executioner, whose orders were to execute her first, by representing to him the impoliteness of refusing a woman's last request. It is said that bending herself before the statue of Liberty, close to this scene of death, she exclaimed, "Oh! Liberty: what crimes are committed in thy name!" She had often been heard to say that her husband would not survive her. As soon as he heard of her execution, he took leave of two attached female friends in whose house, at Rouen, he had found a refuge, and to whom his resolution was known; walked in the evening of the 15th of November as far as Baudouin, four leagues on the road to Paris; sat down by the side of a tree in an avenue leading to a private house, and passed his cane-sword through his chest. By his side was found a paper, in which these words were written:-"Whoever you are who find me lying here, respect my remains; they are those of a man who devoted his whole life to being useful, and who died, as he had lived, virtuous and honest."

ROLLE, MICHEL, a French mathematician, was born at Ambert in Auvergne, in 1652. He appears to have possessed from nature a remarkable facility in solving propositions relating to arithmetic and algebra, and to have acquired by practice a great proficiency in the calligraphic art. After having served during several years as an attorney's clerk, he went, in 1675, to Paris, where he obtained a subsistance as a writing-master, and where he spent his leisure time in cultivating the mathematical sciences. An accidental circumstance

procured for him the notice of M. Colbert. Ozanam, who was himself a good analyst, happening to propose to mathematicians a problem of the kind called indeterminate, which, he conceived, could be solved only by a process involving very high numbers, Rolle was so fortunate as to discover a neat solution; and the minister, being informed of it, was induced, in 1685, to recommend him for election as a member of the Academy of Sciences, then recently formed.

From this time Rolle devoted himself to analytical pursuits, and in 1690 he published a treatise on algebra in 4to. This work contains, among other methods for the solution of equations, one which he calls the method of 'cascades,' a name given to it because it consists in successively depressing the equation one degree lower at each operation. It has some analogy to a method given by Newton in the Arithmetica Universalis,' but its want of generality has caused it ever since to be neglected. An affectation of peculiar modes of expression prevails throughout the whole work, which is otherwise very obscurely written : the author was however particularly skilful in the management of questions of the kind called diophantine, and he published a treatise on that subject in 1699.

Rolle, unfortunately for his fame, entered the lists as an opponent of the algebra of Descartes, and of the differential calculus which had been then recently discovered by Newton and Leibnitz; and he is accused of using towards those who endeavoured to point out his mistakes a tone of anger which is very unbecoming in a philosopher. He began in 1701 to attack the differential calculus, objecting both to its principles and its applications; and, with respect to the latter, he endeavoured to show that in particular examples the results are incon. sistent with those which are brought out by the ancient processes. The new calculus, as it was called, found however in France a zealous and temperate advocate in Varignon, who, in replying to the objections of Rolle, explained the true meaning of the differential symbols, and pointed out that the supposed discrepancies in the results of the examples arose entirely from the haste and inadvertency of the objector.

This dispute agitated the French Academy of Sciences for a long time, Rolle continuing to raise one objection after another; and though they were answered by Varignon, the former always pretended to have the victory. It is said that the Academy was then composed of men who had been long accustomed to the ancient analysis, and therefore saw with pleasure an opposition raised against methods to which they were not yet reconciled. In 1705 however the Academy, without pronouncing a judgment on the subject, recommended that Rolle, in moderating his language, should conform to the rules of the institution; and the dispute was for a time terminated. This was twentynine years before Bishop Berkeley attempted to revive the subject in the Analyst.' [ROBINS.]

It appears that subsequently Rolle acknowledged his error, and thus he may be supposed to have deserved the pardon of posterity. He was admitted second geometrical pensioner of the Academy in 1699, and died on the 5th of July 1719, at sixty-seven years of age. ROLLIN, CHARLES, born at Paris, on the 30th of January 1661, was the second son of a master cutler, and was intended by his father for the same trade. Attracting the notice of a Benedictine monk, by the taste and aptitude for learning which he showed at a very early age, he was rescued from his obscure destiny, and placed at the college of Plessis with a pension. Here he pursued his studies with great zeal, industry, and docility, was much noticed by the principal of the college, and was selected by the minister, Le Peletier, as the companion of his two sons, with whom he had disputed the prize of academic distinction in generous rivalship. After having been instructed in humanities and philosophy, he devoted three years to the study of theology at the Sorbonne. At the age of twenty-two he had distinguished himself so much in the college of Plessis, that Hersan, the professor of rhetoric there, pointed him out as his own successor in the professorial chair, which he wished to vacate; and Rollin, in spite of his own diffidence, was made his assistant in 1683, and professor in his stead in 1687. The next year he received the additional honour of the professorship of eloquence in the Royal College. In both these capacities he did not disappoint expectation. The orations which he delivered in public were very correct and elegant Latin compositions; and the reforms and regulations introduced by him into the discipline of the university deserve much praise. He revived the study of Greek, which had been greatly neglected; gave more prominence to the cultivation of the French language in the course of general instruction; introduced the plan of learning by heart fine passages of different authors, as an exercise of taste and memory; and substituted exercises in the room of the dramatic representations which the scholars had been in the habit of performing. In 1694 he was appointed rector of the university, in which office he continued two years, and made himself remarkable not less for his constant attention to its internal management than for his zeal in maintaining its privileges against all attempts to impair them.

At the expiration of the rectorship he was engaged by Cardinal Noailles to superintend the studies of his nephews, having resigned all his public employments, except the professorship of eloquence in the Royal College, in order that he might have more leisure for his private literary labours. Shortly after he was drawn from his retirement, and

unwillingly persuaded to become coadjutor in the college of Beauvais. In this situation he passed fifteen years, devoting himself with as much assiduity to the improvement of the system of education there as he had before done in the college of Plessis. In consequence of the disputes between the Jesuits and Jansenists, which latter party he was thought to favour, and the intrigues thence arising in his college, Rollin was compelled to quit his office at Beauvais. In 1715 he published his edition of Quintilian, in 2 vols. 12mo, with a preface and a popular outline of rhetoric, short notes, and summaries of the chapters. The text was not published entire, but selections were made according to the judgment of the editor.

In 1720 he was again chosen rector of the university, but in consequence of the religious feuds already mentioned, he was displaced very shortly by a lettre-de-cachet, the university being desired to choose a more moderate rector. From this period till his death he seems to have withdrawn from public life as much as possible, and devoted himself to study, the fruit of which was given to the world in several works. In 1726 appeared his 'Traité de la Manière d'Etudier et d'Enseigner les Belles-Lettres,' a work which presents a popular view of such classical and French literature as he considered suited for he instruction of the young, and contains such a system of education as his own experience in teaching had suggested. This treatise, though deficient in philosophical principles, and inferior to subsequent writings of the same nature, was well adapted for the age in which it was published, and contributed probably very much to diffuse a general taste for literature throughout France. It was translated into English in 1735, under the title of Thoughts concerning Education, translated from the French.' Encouraged by the general approbation with which this publication was received, Rollin composed his 'Histoire Ancienne,' an account of the chief nations of antiquity drawn from profane authors, and terminating with the establishment of the Roman empire under Augustus, in thirteen volumes, which appeared successively in the interval between 1730 and 1738. His last work was a 'History of Rome,' which was afterwards continued by Crevier, from the end of the republic to the time of Constantine, in completion of the original plan. Rollin's latter years were disturbed occasionally by the religious troubles which agitated his country. His friendship with many distinguished Jansenists drew upon him from time to time the suspicions of the government, and he was accused of joining in conspiracies, and his house searched in consequence, though his enemies could not succeed in criminating him. He died 14th September, 1741, having exceeded his eightieth year.

From the testimony of his contemporaries it appears that Rollin's character was a model of piety and virtue. He was remarkable for his liberality, modesty, integrity, and single-heartedness. This last quality is shown not less in the whole tenor of his actions than in his writings, which please more from a certain simplicity than from any other cause. The merits and defects of his 'Belles-Lettres' are of the same kind as those observable in his Histoire Ancienne.' There is the same want of profound thought, and the same absence of critical judgment, the same easy style, attractive to a young mind, and pleasing from its very carelessness, while the want of critical judgment is compensated by the love of truth and the morality which pervade the whole. Great praise has been bestowed on Rollin by his contemporary admirers, among the most illustrious of whom were the Duke of Cumberland and Frederic the Great, who was his frequent correspondent. Montesquieu styled him 'the bee of France,' and Voltaire and Rousseau have confirmed this eulogium. Modern readers will perhaps think that Rollin's merits as an author have been overrated by the zeal of personal friendship and esteem for his private character, and that his works are chiefly valuable as having contributed to form the taste and strengthen the moral feelings of his age. His 'Opuscules' were collected and published, 2 vols. 12mo, in 1771; they contain orations and poems, written in very classical and graceful Latin, correspondence with Frederic the Great, Rousseau, and other distinguished persons, and other smaller compositions.

Extracts from his works, by M. l'Abbé Lucet, were published in 8vo, Paris, 1780, under the title of Pensées sur plusieurs points importans de Littérature, de Politique, et de Réligion.' He is said to have written a History of the Arts and Sciences of the Antients,' London, 3 vols. 8vo, 1768. His 'Histoire Ancienne' has frequently been reprinted. A new edition of all his works was commenced at Paris, 8vo, 1837. This history was edited by Emile Beres, with new maps and plates.

ROMAGNO'SI, GIAN DOME'NICO, was born near Piacenza in 1761. He studied first in the College Alberoni, where he had for a schoolfellow his countryman Gioia, who afterwards distinguished himself as a publicist and a political economist. [GIOIA, MELCHIORRE.] Romagnosi continued his studies at Parma, where he took his degree of Doctor of Law in 1786. He afterwards practised as an advocate. In 1791 he published his 'Genesi del Diretto Penale,' being an investigation of the grounds on which the infliction of punishment for offences is founded. Beccaria, Filangieri, and other Italian jurists of that age, had adopted the French theory of a social contract, by which each member of incipient societies was supposed to have given up a portion of his original independence into the hands of the collective body, and to have thus bound himself and his descendants. Romagnosi rejected

this hypothesis, and he derived what he called the right of punishing from the principle of necessity and of self-defence, inasmuch as the whole of society is concerned in an injury which is done to any of its members. His work was well received in France and Germany, but it has been little noticed in Italy until of late years, where it has been republished several times; and it is now much studied, especially in Tuscany. Soon after the publication of the work, the Prince-Bishop of Trent named him prætor, or chief magistrate, of that town, an office held for one year, but in which Romagnosi was confirmed for three consecutive years, after which the bishop named him his aulic councillor.

During the turmoil of the French revolution, Romagnosi did not participate in the admiration of many of his countrymen for what were called the new ideas, and he tried to define the just meaning of liberty and equality in two little works, 'Che Cosa è Eguaglianza, 'Che Cosa è Libertà,' 1793. When the French invaded Italy in 1796, Romagnosi remained in the Italian Tyrol, to whose population he was greatly attached: he said of them, among other things, that they did not know how to tell a lie. When the French entered the Tyrol, Romagnosi was named secretary of the provisional council instituted at Trent, in which capacity he did all he could to alleviate the evil of foreign invasion. When the French were driven away in 1799, he was accused by some invidious person of disaffection to his legitimate sovereign, and was arrested and confined at Innsprück; but he was soon released, and the Emperor Francis himself declared him innocent, and banished his accuser. In December 1802 he was appointed professor of law in the University of Parma, where he published his second professional work, 'Introduzione allo Studio del Diritto Pubblico Universale,' a treatise on general jurisprudence. Romagnosi maintained that moral and political science is as susceptible of demonstration as the natural and metaphysical sciences. He took for the basis of his system the principle of moral necessity, saying that men and society tend not only to their preservation, but to their physical and moral improvement, in the quickest and at the same time safest progression. This progression can only be effected by raising the intellectual and moral powers. The understanding and the heart ought to be educated so as to create only wishes and habits consistent with the general welfare, and so that utility and justice shall coincide. A second edition of Romagnosi's work appeared at Milan in 1825, with the addition of five letters by the author to Professor Valeri of Siena, in which he develops and illustrates his principles.

In 1806 Romagnosi was requested by the government of the socalled kingdom of Italy, then under Napoleon I., to repair to Milan, in order to assist other distinguished jurists in compiling a code of criminal procedure. Romagnosi attended all the sittings of the Com mission in which the draught of the new code was discussed. He wished to introduce the jury; but Napoleon put his veto on it, saying that he did not think that the state of Italy allowed of such an institution. Some one proposed to introduce into Italy the 'lettres-de-cachet,' or royal orders for imprisoning individuals for state reasons without trial, which existed in France under Napoleon as well as under the old monarchy; but Romagnosi strenuously opposed the measure. Perceiving much coldness among his colleagues on the subject, he told them that the crosses and decorations which they wore on their breasts produced on them the effect of Medusa's head: finally he carried his point. He had also the merit of introducing into the code the heads 'rehabilitation' and 'revision of trials.' The code, as revised by Romagnosi and his colleagues, was adopted, and published under the following title, 'Codice di Procedura Penale del Regno d'Italia,' 8vo, Brescia, 1807. In France it was praised by Cambacères. The suggestions of Romagnosi during the discussion of the code were published separately under the title Ultime e più necessarie Aggiunte e Riforme al Progetto del Codice di Procedura Penale,' Milano, 1806.

Romagnosi was likewise employed in the compilation of a penal code for the kingdom of Italy, which however never became law. In consequence of the numerous revisions to which it was subjected, and the dilatoriness of the Italian ministers, the project had not reached Paris when Napoleon asked for it. Finding that it was not ready, with his characteristic impatience he ordered the French penal code to be forthwith translated purely and simply, and enforced in Italy, to the great regret of the Italians, who complained of the arbitrary character of many of the French criminal laws. The proposed Italian code was conceived in a very different spirit: it was printed, together with the discussions which it had elicited, in six volumes, 8vo: Collezione dei Travagli sul Codice Penale del Regno d'Italia,' Brescia, 1807. These particulars are useful for enabling us to understand the history of those times and the true character of Napoleon's legislation and administration.

In 1807 Romagnosi was appointed professor of civil law in the University of Pavia, and in 1809 he was recalled to Milan to lecture on legislative science, in order to form a kind of academy of advocates and magistrates. As part of his scheme, he published his Discorso sul Soggetto ed Importanza dello Studio dell' alta Legislazione,' Milan, 1812; and also 'Principii fondamentali di Diritto Amministrativo,' 1814. From his lectures he compiled, in 1820, his "Assunto primo della Scienza del Diritto Naturale,' which may be considered as a continuation of his 'Introduzione al Piritto Pubblico

with a 'Life' by the Hon. and Rev. William Bromley Cadogan, M.A., some account of whom is contained in The Life and Times of the Countess of Huntingdon,' vol. ii., chap. 49.

ROMANELLI, GIOVANNI FRANCESCO, was born at Viterbo in 1617. He studied a short time with Domenichino, but he is chiefly known as the scholar of Pietro da Cortona; and he was one of the principal hangers-on of Bernini, who appears to have selected Romanelli as a rival to Carlo Maratta and the school of Sacchi, and even to Pietro Cortona himself. Romanelli's picture of The Deposition,' in the church of Sant' Ambrogio della Massima, gave him a temporary reputation above all his rivals, which induced Pietro da Cortona to paint a picture for the same church-his 'San Stefano'-which, when it was hung up in its place, so far eclipsed the picture of Romanelli, that Bernini himself observed that it was easy to see who was the master and who the scholar. Romanelli showed more delicacy of execution but considerably less power than Cortona. There is a Presentation in the Temple' in one of the chapels of St. Peter's, worked in mosaic, from a picture by Romanelli which is in the church of the Certosa. He was twice in Paris with his patron Cardinal Barberini, and he died at Viterbo in 1662, when about to set out with his family upon a third visit to that capital. There is a large copy of Guido's 'Triumph of Bacchus' at Hampton Court, by Romanelli.

ROMA'NO, GIULIO. [GIULIO ROMANO.] ROMA'NUS I., an Armenian by birth, served with distinction under Leo the Philosopher and his son Constantine Porphyrogennetus, who made him great admiral. Romanus gave his daughter Helena in marriage to the emperor, who made him his colleague in the empire in 919. Romanus became in fact the real emperor, the weak character of Constantine not being equal to the cares of the state. His own sons however, whom he had named Cæsars, conspired against him, and having seized him, they confined him to a convent in 945, where he died in 948. His two sons did not reap the fruit of their unnatural treachery; they were seized by order of Constantine, and banished to a convent.

ROMA'NUS II., son of Constantine Porphyrogennetus, and grandson, by his mother's side, of Romanus I., poisoned his father and succeeded him in 959. He showed himself as incapable as he was unworthy of the throne. After a reign of little more than four years, he died in 963, it is said by some of poison administered by his wife Theophana. His widow became regent and guardian of her infant children, and she soon after married Nicephorus Phocas. [NICEPHORUS II.] ROMA'NUS III., of a patrician family and senator of Constantinople, was chosen his successor by Constantine IX., and the emperor gave him in marriage his daughter Zoe. He succeeded Constantine in 1028. The beginning of his reign was favourable, but he afterwards met with reverses, his armies having been defeated by the Saracens, and he became stern, avaricious, and unpopular. His wife Zoe, much younger than himself, having formed a guilty connection with an obscure individual called Michael of Paphlagonia, caused her husband to be murdered in the year 1034, upon which she married Michael, and placed him on the throne.

ROMA'NUS IV., DIOGENES, of a noble family, was a soldier under the reign of Constantine Ducas, and after that emperor's death was chosen by his widow Eudocia for her husband and her partner on the throne, 1068. [EUDOCIA.] He passed with an army into Asia, and carried on a successful war against the Turks, whom he drove beyond the Euphrates. Having afterwards entered Armenia, he was defeated by Alp Arslan, sultan of the Turks, and taken prisoner. He was kindly treated by his conqueror, and obtained his liberty by paying a heavy ransom. In the meantime a revolution had taken place at Constantinople, where Michael, son of Constantine Ducas, had risen against his mother, and shut her up in a convent. Romanus on his way homewards was seized by order of Michael, was deprived of his sight, and banished to the island of Prinkipos, in the Sea of Marmara, where he soon after died in 1071.

ROMANZOV, or RUMIANCOV, NICHOLAUS, COUNT, was the son of the Russian field-marshal Romanzov who became celebrated by his victories over the Turks under the reign of Catherine II. He was born in 1753, and appointed Russian minister at Frankfurt-on-theMain in 1785. Under the Emperor Alexander he was nominated minister of commerce. He introduced many liberal measures into his department, and it was owing to his exertions that the first Russian expedition round the world, under Krusenstern and Lisianski, was sent out in 1803. In 1807 he was appointed minister for foreign affairs, and soon afterwards chancellor of the empire. He accompanied the Emperor Alexander to the interview with Napoleon at Erfurt in 1808, concluded the treaty of peace with Sweden in 1809, and that of peace and alliance with Spain in 1812, by which Russia formally acknowledged the constitution of the Cortes of Cadiz. In 1814 he left public life, and devoted his time and fortune to the promotion of literature, science, and education in his own country. Many important works were published at his expense, as for instance the Diplomatic Code of Russia at Moscow;' the History of the Byzantine writer Leo Diaconus,' edited by Professor Hase at Paris, and a Russian translation at St. Petersburg; the History of the Mongols and Tatars by Abulghazi,' which was printed for the first time in the original Tatar at Kazan, 1825; and many other important publications relating not

only to the political history of Russia, but also to that of its manners, customs, literature, and art. The scientific expedition round the world by Captain Kotzebue in the years 1815-18 was undertaken and the account of it was published at the expense of Romanzov. He established on his estate of Homel in the government of Mohiloff, under the direction of an Englishman, Mr. Heard, the first Lancasterian and industrial schools in Russia. This patriotic individual died in 1826. He had never been married.

ROMBERG, ANDREAS and BERNHARD, eminent German composers, were the eldest sons of brothers who enjoyed a considerable share of reputation as instrumental performers during the middle and latter part of the last century.

ANDREAS was born at Osnabruck in 1767; BERNHARD in 1770. Both held appointments in the royal chapel of the Elector of Cologne, at Bonn, about the year 1790. Andreas was distinguished by his superior performance on the violin; Bernhard as an almost unrivalled player on the violoncello; and both by their compositions, even at that early period of their career. The progress of the French armies at the commencement of the revolutionary war drove the two cousins to Hamburg, where their talents immediately procured them engagements. In 1795 they quitted that city, and visited many parts of Germany and Italy, establishing their reputation, wherever they presented them selves, as professors of the first class. They returned to Hamburg in 1797, where the elder remained; but the younger left that city two years after, and proceeded alone through England and Spain to Lisbon, and subsequently obtained a good situation in the royal chapel at Berlin. Andreas in the meantime turned his attention more exclusively to composition, and produced four operettas; he also set Schiller's Ode to music. For the church he wrote a 'Dixit Dominus' and a 'Te Deum,' each for four voices, and a 'Pater Noster' for three, besides many psalms. For the chamber or concert-room he composed much music, among other things Schiller's 'Song of the Bell' ('Das Lied von der Glocke '), which is well known to connoisseurs in every part of Europe. He also produced two full operas, 'Die Grossmuth der Scipio (The Magnanimity of Scipio'), and Die Ruinen von Paluzzi' (The Ruins of Paluzzi'), the drama of the latter from Mrs. Radcliffe's 'Italian.'

Bernhard, while in Berlin, wrote two operettas and much instrumental music, particularly for the violoncello. Both cousins indeed were for a time chiefly known as authors by their compositions for their respective instruments. Their posthumous fame is mainly attributable to their symphonies and overtures, the best of which have become familiar to the amateurs of this country by the admirable performance of them at the concerts of the Philharmonic Society. Andreas Romberg died in 1821, and leaving a family in embarrassed circumstances, a concert for their benefit was generously got up in London by the Philharmonic Society, which afforded them temporary relief. Bernhard was appointed a professor at the Conservatoire de Musique at Paris in 1801, and created Chevalier of the Legion of Honour, but retired from the former office two years later. He came to London a second time in 1814, when the Allied Sovereigns visited this country, and gave a concert, by which he was no gainer either in purse or reputation; for imprudently, not to say presumptuously, fixing his tickets of admission at a guinea, his auditors were few, and his own performance too plainly announced either the decay of his powers, or that he had not kept pace with others in the improvements of his art. He died in 1841.

ROMBOUTS, THEODORE, was born at Antwerp in 1597, and studied painting under Abraham Jansens until he was twenty years of age, when he went to Rome, and was soon known as one of the most promising young artists of his time. He obtained from a nobleman in that city a commission to execute a series of twelve pictures of subjects from the Old Testament, which, when completed, added greatly to his reputation. After residing at Rome a few years, and gaining constant employment, he was invited to Florence by the Grand-Duke of Tuscany, and executed for that prince several large historical works for the palace. After an absence of eight years, Rombouts returned to Flanders, and established himself in his native city in 1625. He was soon engaged to paint in the churches, and his pictures excited universal admiration. He was thus induced to believe that he could rival Rubens, who was then in the full exercise of his astonishing powers. Rombouts made the trial, and though he did not succeed, his failure was unattended by disgrace. If his works do not possess the magnificence of his great competitor in their conception, nor his splendour and breadth of effect in their execution, they must be admitted to show a readiness of invention, a correctness of design, an animation of expression, a warmth and brilliancy of colouring, and a surprising facility of touch, which would have placed him, at another time and under other circumstances, at the head of his profession. The works which he executed in competition with Rubens were, 'St. Francis receiving the Stigmata;' the 'Sacrifice of Abraham in the Church of the Recolets;' and 'Themis with the Attributes of Justice,' in the town-house of Ghent. The "Taking Down from the Cross,' in the cathedral of the same city, is a composition which proves that Rombouts possessed most of the qualities of a great master. In order to gain money however he did not hesitate to paint familiar subjects, such as concerts, assemblies, and merry-makings, which, though executed with taste and freedom, are far inferior to his other works. He also painted