Ribalta's design was correct and vigorous; he was a good anatomist; and his compositions are often grand. In colouring also he was generally good, much resembling Sebastiano and Titian, though occasionally dry; but the works of some of his principal scholars, as Castañed and Bausa, are sometimes attributed to him. His works are or were very numerous in Valencia, and there are several at Castellon de la Plana, and Madrid; and some at San Ildefonso, Toledo, Zaragoza, Andilla, Algemesi, Torrente, Portaceli, Morella, and Carcaxente. The Entombment' by Ribalta, in the cathedral of Valencia, is an excellent work, and there are also many admirable pictures by him in private collections in Valencia, as those of the Conde de Parcent, and the Marques del Rafol. The Corpus Christi College is, according to Mr. Ford, a complete museum of Ribaltas. It was founded by Ribalta's patron, the Archbishop Juan de Ribera, commonly called 'El Santo Ribera.' He was canonised in 1797. Ribalta is to be seen to greatest advantage in the church of this college, which contains some of his greatest works, as San Vicente de Ferrer visited on his sick Bed by our Saviour and Saints;' the 'Last Supper,' already mentioned; and a Holy Family.' In other parts of the same building are Christ in the Garden of Olives;' 'Christ at the Column,' and a saint or 'Beata' in a brown habit. There are also some works by Ribalta in the Museo (the former 'Carmen') of Valencia. The pictures of the church of the small hamlet of Andilla are also among the best works of Ribalta. At Segorbe, in the church of San Martin de las Monjas, is also a noble picture by Ribalta of Christ descending into Hades. In the church of his native place Castellon de la Plana there is still a 'Purgatory' by him; other fine works that were in this place have been allowed to perish. The picture of Christ bearing his Cross' in Magdalen College, Oxford, of which there is a print by Sherwin, and which is ascribed to Guido, Lodovico Caracci, and to Moralez el Divino, is, according to Mr. Ford, certainly a picture by Ribalta. It is the chapel altar-piece, and was presented to the college by William Freeman, of Hamels, in Hertfordshire; it was originally brought from Spain by the last Duke of Ormond from Vigo in 1702. JUAN DE RIBALTA, an able painter, and of great promise, was the son and pupil of Francisco, but he died in the same year as his father, aged only 31; he was born in 1597. Ribera also, or Spagnoletto, is said to have been the pupil of Ribalta.

RIBE'RA, JOSÉ, an eminent Spanish painter, better known by the surname of SPAGNOLETTO (the little Spaniard), which the Italians gave him, was born on the 12th of January 1588, at San Felipe de Xativa, a large town in Spain, about ten miles from Valencia. Having from his early youth shown a great inclination for painting, his parents, though in indigent circumstances, did everything in their power to promote his taste for that art. He was placed as a student under Francisco Ribalta [Ribalta, FraNCISCO], but before he was sixteen he left his master, and determined to visit Italy. After spending some time at Rome, where he almost lived upon charity, he arrived at Naples in 1606. Here he met with Michel Angelo Caravaggio, whose striking and vigorous style made such an impression upon him that he never rested until he became his pupil. Under this master Ribera made such progress, and his productions were so much admired, that he was considered an accomplished master at the age of twenty. From Naples, Ribera went to Parma, where the works of Correggio were then the object of public admiration, and afterwards he visited Rome. Whilst there he attempted to improve his style by imitating the works of Raffaelle, but without much success. This circumstance, as well as the great number of excellent artists practising in that city, induced him to return to Naples, where his prospects of employment were greater, that country being then under the dominion of his countrymen the Spaniards. After a few months' residence at Naples, the Count of Monterrey, the Spanish viceroy, took him under his protection, and employed him in executing considerable works for the King of Spain. In 1630 he was elected a member of the Academy of St. Luke at Rome, and he was made a knight of the order of Christ by the pope in 1644. Ribera died at Naples in 1656. Like his master Caravaggio, his style was characterised by broad lights and shades. His genius naturally inclined him to gloomy or horrible subjects, which he selected both from sacred and profane history. He delighted in designing old men emaciated by mortification, such as hermits and saints, and seems to have at all times rejoiced in the display of bone, veins, and tendons. In tragic compositions, martyrdoms, executions, and torments, he was eminently successful; and he treated these appalling subjects with a correctness of design and a fidelity which might serve as a study for the anatomist. Thus the spasms of Ixion, S. Bartholomew under the butcher's knife, the torments of Sisyphus, Tantalus, and Prometheus, Laocoon and his sons attacked by serpents, were his favourite subjects. His principal pictures are in the Royal Museum at Madrid, in the Escurial, and at Naples, in which last place he painted the Martyrdom of S. Januarius, for the royal chapel; S. Jerome and S. Bruno,' for the church of the Trinity; and the Taking Down from the Cross,' for the Carthusians. Ribera

sometimes indulged himself in engraving, and he also made six-andtwenty etchings, which were executed in a bold and free style. The National Gallery has a 'Shepherd with a Lamb,' by Ribera. RICARDO, DAVID, was born in London, on the 19th of April, 1772. His father, a native of Holland, had then been for several years a member of the Stock Exchange in London; and designing his third son, David, for the same occupation, gave him a good but plain commercial education. For this purpose he was sent when eleven years of age, to a school in Holland, where he remained for about two years. Soon after his return to England he was taken into his father's office as a clerk, and when of age was associated with him in business. In 1793 he formed a matrimonial alliance displeasing to his father, by reason of his religious scruples, the elder Mr. Ricardo having been born of Jewish parents, and continuing to profess their faith until his death. This breach between the father and son, which was afterwards entirely healed, necessarily caused their separation as regarded business, and threw the subject of this notice altogether upon his own efforts, seconded however, in a manner highly honourable to all parties, by many of the leading members of the Stock Exchange. Mr. Ricardo continued to be a member of the Stock Exchange until 1818, and was eminently successful, taking for many years a leading part in its business, and realising a princely fortune by conduct which gained for him universal respect.

During the years in which Mr. Ricardo was most actively engaged in business, he continued to devote much time to study and to scientific pursuits. He was one of the original promoters of the Geological Society of London, and for some years a member of its council. He also acquired a considerable knowledge of chemistry, as well as an acquaintance with mathematics. Of late years the powers of his mind were almost wholly devoted to the elucidation of questions connected with political economy, a study which was at once best suited to the peculiar quality of his mind and most in unison with his daily pursuits in business, and by his attainments in which he was enabled to take his place among the most original thinkers of his day.

In the beginning of 1819 Mr. Ricardo was returned to parliament by the Irish borough of Portarlington, which place he continued to represent until his death.

The reputation which Mr. Ricardo had previously acquired by his writings ensured to him the attention of the house on all occasions when he spoke, and not unfrequently induced the members present to call upon him for his opinion when the subject-matter of the debate was such as might receive light from his extensive knowledge. Although he confined himself in his parliamentary speeches almost entirely to subjects of finance, and such as fell strictly within the line of economical science, his reported speeches are numerous and of considerable value. During each of the five sessions in which he sat in parliament his name constantly appears as a speaker, and in the latest two years of the series (1822 and 1823) his addresses were very frequent. Those persons who had most narrowly watched the progress of his public career felt justified in predicting for him a future of the highest usefulness; and had his life been spared, it is reasonable to think that their predictions would have been fulfilled. At the close of the session of 1823 he retired to his estate of Gatcomb Park in Gloucestershire, and, after a very few days' illness, died on the 11th of September, of an inflammation of the brain, in the fifty-second year of his age.

Mr. Ricardo first appeared as an author during the discussion that led to and accompanied the famous Bullion Committee in 1810. His pamphlet, which was entitled 'The High Price of Bullion a Proof of the Depreciation of Bank Notes,' speedily passed through four editions, and occasioned the publication of several replies. His next publication was entitled 'A Reply to Mr. Bosanquet's Practical Observations on the Report of the Bullion Committee;' and however much opinions may at that time have been divided upon the subject, it has long since been generally acknowledged that the victory rested with Mr. Ricardo. Although the peculiar interest which attended those discussions has long since passed away, Mr. Ricardo's pamphlet will be read with pleasure by all who delight in marking the ease with which a man of superior talent can trace and exhibit the constant and active operation of general principles through all the intricacies of practical detail. In 1815 Mr. Ricardo published 'An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock,' in which he combated the justice of restrictions on the importation of corn; but the essay is chiefly remarkable for the doctrine which it propounds concerning rent. The following year produced 'Proposals for an Economical and Secure Currency, with Observations on the Profits of the Bank of England.' Mr. Ricardo's great work, that upon which his lasting fame as an economist must rest, On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation,' was published in 1817, and was at once pronounced the most valuable contribution made to economical science since the days of Adam Smith. In 1822 Mr. Ricardo again appeared as the author of a tract entitled 'On Protection to Agriculture,' in which ho exposed certain fallacies and prejudices of the landed proprietors. The effects of legislative protection afforded to products of the soil upon wages, profits, public revenues, and non-agricultural branches of the national industry, are all discussed within the limits of eighty-seven pages, with a clearness and precision that may be said to exhaust the matter, and which prove the author to have been perfect master of

F

the whole subject. The only remaining work of Mr. Ricardo was found among his papers after his death, having been the latest matter of a public character that occupied his attention. This was his pamphlet in recommendation of a national bank, which was soon afterwards published by his family, in the exact state in which he left it probably only a few days before his death. RICAUT, SIR PAUL. [RYCAUT.]

RICCI or RIZZI, SEBASTIANO, a painter, born at Cividal di Belluno, near Trevisano, in the Venetian state, in 1659 or 1660. He was placed early under the tuition of Frederigo Cervelli, at Venice. He accompanied his preceptor to Milan, and afterwards went to Bologna and Venice, to study the master-pieces of those two schools. He resided for some years at Florence and Rome, and ultimately made a tour of the whole of Italy, executing pictures at any price, wherever he obtained commissions, and leaving behind him a reputation almost universal. He afterwards travelled into Germany, England, and Flanders, completing his style from a careful study of the works of other artists, and especially improving in his mode of colouring. At Vienna he executed many works for the court, particularly some paintings on the walls of the imperial palace of Schönbrunn, and thence he returned to Florence, where he was employed to decorate several of the apartments in the palace of the grand-duke. Being invited to England by Queen Anne, he travelled through France, and at Paris was made a member of the Academy of Painting. In the cupola of Chelsea Hospital he represented the Ascension, and he also decorated the staircase of Montague House, afterwards the British Museum, and now pulled down. He likewise painted the chapel at Bulstrode, for the Duke of Portland, in the altar-piece of which, representing the Last Supper, he has introduced his own portrait in a modern habit. The hall and some of the ceilings of Burlington-House, London, are also by him. During his residence in England, which lasted ten years, he was most extensively employed, and his departure is said by Walpole to have been caused by disgust that Sir James Thornhill should have been selected to paint the dome of St. Paul's Cathedral.

On quitting this country he returned to Venice, where he was constantly occupied on pictures for France, Spain, Portugal, and Sardinia. Ricci, in common with Luca Giordano, possessed the power of imitating with considerable facility the style of the great masters who preceded him. Some of his pictures appear at first sight as if painted by Bassano or Paul Veronese, and one of his Madonnas, exhibited at Dresden, was for some time attributed to Coreggio. Sebastiano is in fact rather an imitator than a plagiarist, as in the Last Supper, in the church of Santa Giustina, at Padua, which greatly resembles the cupola of San Giovanni at Parma, by Coreggio; and his San Gregorio, at San Alessandro in Bergamo, recals to mind the work of Guercino at Bologna. The same may be observed of his scripture histories, painted for S. Cosmo and S. Damiano, at Venice, which are preferred to any others that he executed for that place. Ricci's figures exhibit much beauty and grace, like those of Paul Veronese; his attitudes are natural and varied, and his composition is managed with judgment. His colouring is distinguished by a beautiful azure, which remains in his fresco works, but in his pictures in oil, from the badness of the grounds, that as well as the other tints has faded. In many of his works he was assisted by his nephew Marco Ricci, who resided with him in England.

Sebastiano died at Venice, on the 5th of May 1734. Amongst the most noted of his productions may be enumerated the Massacre of the Innocents, at Venice; the Rape of the Sabines at Rome; at Bergamo, Saint Gregory supplicating the Virgin in favour of the Souls in Purgatory, before referred to; at Vienna, several ceilings of the imperial palace, and an Assumption of the Virgin, at the church of St. Charles. RICCIARELLI, DANIELE, generally called DANIELE DI VOLTERRA, from the place of his nativity, was born in 1509. He appears to have first studied at Siena, under Antonio Razzi, called II Sodoma, and afterwards under Baldassare Peruzzi. In the expectation of receiving greater encouragement at Rome, he repaired to that city, where he was first employed as an assistant to Pierino del Vaga in the Vatican, and in the Capella Massimi, in the church of the Trinità del Monte. He was chiefly indebted for the reputation which he subsequently acquired to the friendship and instruction of Michel Angelo, who gave him designs for the works which he executed in the Farnesina, and for others of his most celebrated performances. The principal monument of his fame was the series of frescoes in the church of La Trinità del Monte, representing the History of the Cross, on which he was employed seven years. Of these frescoes, the most remarkable was the famous Descent from the Cross, which was universally esteemed as one of the three finest pictures at Rome; the other two being the Transfiguration by Raffaelle, and the Communion of St. Jerome, by Domenichino. It has been affirmed that Michel Angelo not only assisted him by his advice, superintendence, and corrections, in the composition of this sublime performance, but that the figure of the Saviour and that of the Virgin Mary must have been the work of his master-hand. Unhappily we are unable to judge of the probability of this assertion; for the French, in their eagerness to possess so fine a work, barbarously attempted to detach the plaster from the wall, and broke it all to pieces. We have no means of judging of the grandeur of the composition but from the fine engraving of it by

Dorigny. On the death of Pierino del Vaga, in 1547, Ricciarelli was recommended by Michel Angelo to Pope Paul III. as superintendent of the works in the Vatican, of which, and of his pension, he was deprived by Julius III. Pope Paul IV., conceiving that the nudity of several figures in the Last Judgment was unsuitable to the sanctity of the place, had determined to destroy that great work; when Daniele undertook, and, according to a tradition which appears to be authentic, with Michel Angelo's own consent, to clothe the offensive figures. He was probably induced to do this, in order to save the picture from destruction, for which however he was ever afterwards called in ridicule Braghetone. He died at Rome, 1566.

RICCIO, DOME'NICO, called IL BRUSASORCI, a celebrated Venetian painter, was born at Verona in 1494. He was the pupil of Giolfino, and is supposed also to have studied under Titian, in Venice, where he at least studied his works and those of Giorgione. He is called the Titian of the Veronese painters. His name of Erusa Sorci (rat-burner) was acquired from his father Giacomo Riccio, who invented a rat-trap, and had what he caught in his own house burnt, whence he was com monly called by his neighbours Brusasorci, a name which descended to his children and grandchildren. Among Domenico's first and principal works in Verona were the frescoes of the Palazzo de' Murari, near the Ponte Nuovo, which he decorated exteriorly in chiaroscuro with scenes from the fable of Cupid and Psyche, and the marriage festival of Benacus (the Lago di Garda) with the nymph Charis represented by Garda; he painted numerous nymphs, with Hymen, as he is described by Catullus ('Carmen' 61-62), and all the characteristics of rural and sylvan life, poetical and real; and also in distinct compart ments extensive groups of marine deities, and other corresponding mythic creations, for all of which he received only forty ducats. In the Palazzo Ridolfi he painted the celebrated cavalcade of Clement VII. and Charles V., at Bologna, on the consecration of the emperor, in which he introduced many portraits; these frescoes are still in preservation. Riccio painted also many excellent works in oil, including several large altar-pieces for some of the principal churches in and near Verona, and other works in the ducal palace at Mantua. Venuses and nymphs were also favourite subjects with him; and such pictures frequently occur in picture galleries. He died in 1567.

FELICE RICCIO, or BRUSASORCI, his son, was also a distinguished painter; but having studied under Ligozzi at Florence, he painted in a different style from his father: more delicate, but with less power; he was a good portrait painter. He died in 1605, aged sixty-five. His sister Cecilia Brusasorci was also an excellent painter of portraits. Giovanni Battista Brusasorci, another son of Domenico, was painter to one of the German emperors, and died in Germany.

RICCIO'LI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, was born at Ferrara in 1598, and became one of the principal cultivators of astronomy in Italy during the greater part of the 17th century. He entered into the Society of the Jesuits in 1614, and having diligently cultivated all the different branches of learning as they were taught in that age, he was chosen teacher of philosophy, rhetoric, poetry, and theology in the colleges of their order at Parma and Bologna; but his inclination leading him to the study of geography and astronomy, he gave up his appointments, and applied himself wholly to the prosecution of those sciences. His first published work was the 'Almagestum novum' (1653), which constitutes a treatise on astronomy. In it he mentions the origin of the science, and gives a list of those who had cultivated it: he also describes his method of measuring a degree of the earth's surface, and a pendulum of his own invention. He computes the obliquity of the ecliptic, the length of the tropical year, and the elements of the orbits of the sun, moon, and planets; he also treats of eclipses, and gives a long list of such as had been observed from the earliest time. The work contains a treatise on parallaxes, and some ideas of the writer concerning the body of the moon.

The learned world was then divided between the followers of Aristotle and the disciples of Copernicus in their opinions respecting the system of the universe. In the 'Almagestum,' Riccioli, having explained the ideas of Copernicus concerning the movement of the earth, offers a long series of objections to them, which, with a brief reply to each, may be seen in Delambre ('Histoire de l'Astron. Mod.,' tom. i. p. 672, &c.). He acknowledges however that the more we examine the hypothesis of the earth's several motions, the more we must admire the genius and sagacity of Copernicus, who had been able to explain so simply the phenomena of the heavens; and he expresses his regret that the fruits of a brilliant imagination should be set forth as realities. The admiration constantly expressed for Copernicus, and even the manner in which the objections to his theory are stated, have led to a belief that this learned Jesuit was a Copernican in his heart; and from a passage in the work, it appears that the Aristotelians and theologians of that day, in their opposition, were more afraid of the consequences of making concessions in favour of a theory which seemed to them to be at variance with the letter of the Scriptures, than inimical to the theory itself. The Almagestum' contains many passages which betray the prejudices of the age. reason for the necessity of reforming the calendar, Riccioli asserts that the blood of St. Januarius continued to liquefy on the 19th of September, though the time of the exquinoxes had been anticipated by ten days: he finds several causes for the supposed eclipse of the sun which took place at the death of Christ, and he dwells at some

As a

length upon those which, it has been imagined, will immediately precede the end of the world.

In 1661 Riccioli published a work on geography and hydrography, in which is given an account of the operations which, in conjunction with P. Grimaldi, he had carried on in order to determine the length of a degree of the terrestrial meridian. For this purpose a base-line was measured near Bologna, and a triangulation was formed between that city and Modena; the stations appear however to have been improperly chosen, for the angles between them are often less than eight degrees, and only two were observed in each triangle. The instrument employed for obtaining the terrestrial angles was similar to the parallactic rulers of Ptolemæus; and, in reducing the distances between the stations to one spherical surface, Riccioli assumed the refraction as constant, and equal to thirty minutes, as it had been determined by Tycho Brahé for celestial bodies in the horizon. The latitudes of the stations were determined by the sun and certain stars, their altitudes being observed with a quadrant whose radius was eight feet; but the declinations were taken from the catalogue of the astronomer just mentioned, and consequently were liable to errors amounting to one minute or more. It appears also that Riccioli entertained an opinion that the measures of the ancients were nearly correct; hence, among his observations, he made choice of such as gave results which approached the nearest to those measures, and thus his determination of the length of a degree is found to have been very erro. neous. The value expressed by 64,365 paces of Bologna (=66,772 Eng. fath.), which he obtained by one of his methods, is considered by him as possessing an evidence in its favour which nothing can resist; it however differs far more from the truth than the determination of Snell, which had been made a few years previously in France; and in fact it is too great by above 6000 fathoms. The same work contains some remarks on the variation of the magnetic needle, observations on geographical longitudes and latitudes, and several problems relating to navigation.

Lastly, in 1665, Riccioli published his Astronomia Reformata,' a work in which he treats of refractions and parallaxes, and describes the instruments which he used to determine the places of the stars. He also gives a collection of the observations previously made on the planets, and he compares them with the astronomical tables which had then been published. The work concludes with several tables relating to chronology, geography, and astronomy, and with a catalogue of stars. Riccioli died in 1671, at the age of seventy-three. RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES, was born on the 28th of March 1787, near Dijon in Burgundy, and, while yet an infant, was carried to Bristol, where he spent the early years of his life. He received a good education, and was early distinguished by his extraordinary powers in the acquisition of languages. At the age of eight or nine he happened to see some Arabic manuscripts in the library of a gentleman at Bristol, and was seized with a strong desire to acquire that language. This accidental circumstance led him to study the Oriental languages, in which he made such proficiency as to be able to read with considerable facility the Arabic, Hebrew, Syriac, Persian, and Turkish languages by the time he had attained his fifteenth year. His extra. ordinary acquirements in Oriental literature induced a friend to obtain for him, in 1803, the appointment to a cadetcy in the East India Company's service; and he was shortly after presented with a writership in the Bombay establishment by Mr. Parry, the chairman of the board of directors, in consequence of the strong recommendation of Sir Charles Wilkins. To enable him to perfect himself in the Arabic and Turkish languages, he was attached as secretary to Mr. Lock, who was at that time proceeding to Egypt as consul-general; and after the death of Mr. Lock, which happened before Mr. Rich joined him, he was allowed by the court of directors to prosecute such a course of travel as it was supposed might be most conducive to the object which he had in view. He accordingly went to Constantinople and Smyrna to study the Turkish language, and thence proceeded to Egypt to perfect himself in the Arabic and its various dialects. After leaving Egypt, he travelled over a great part of Palestine and Syria in the disguise of a Mameluke, and, confiding in his knowledge of the Turkish language and manners, ventured to visit the grand mosque at Damascus, while the great body of pilgrims was assembled at that city on their way to Mecca. From Syria he proceeded by Mardin and Baghdad to Bussora, whence he sailed for Bombay, which he reached in September 1807.

suggested by the recent Observations and Discoveries of C. J. Rich, Esq., in which he questioned some of his conclusions, Mr. Rich undertook another journey to Babylon, and in 1818 published, in London, a 'Second Memoir on Babylon,' in which he endeavoured to confirm the correctness of his first account; to this memoir he also added a valuable appendix on Babylonian antiques, illustrated by engravings, which represent fac-similes of many cuneiform inscriptions found upon bricks at Babylon: recent investigations have confirmed many of his views. A second edition of these Memoirs, with the narrative of Mr. Rich's journey to Babylon in 1811, and to Persepolis in 1821 was published by his widow in 1839.

In 1813 Mr. Rich, being compelled by bad health to leave Baghdad for a time, travelled to Constantinople, and subsequently to Paris. He returned to Baghdad in 1815, where he resumed his former pursuits, and made large additions to his collection of manuscripts and antiques. During this time he made the second excursion to Babylon already referred to; and in 1820 he made a tour into Koordistan. He went as far east as Sinna, and visited Sulimania, Mosul, and the ruins of Nineveh, and returned from Mosul to Baghdad down the 'ligris. The journal which he kept on this occasion was published in 1836 by his widow under the title of 'Narrative of a Residence in Koordistan,' and was accompanied by a valuable map of the country between Sinna, Arbil, and Mosul, which was drawn up from Mr. Rich's survey and astronomical observations. On his return to Baghdad he intended to proceed to Bombay, where he had been appointed to an important office by the Hon. Mountstuart Elphinstone, who was then governor; but in consequence of an attack made upon the residency by the orders or with the connivance of the pasha, he retired to Bussora. While waiting for instructions from his own government, he employed his time in a tour to Shirauz, whence he visited the ruins of Persepolis and other remains of antiquity in that neighbourhood. While at Shirauz he was attacked by the cholera morbus, and died of that disease on the 5th of October 1821.

Mr. Rich's death was a great loss to his private friends and to oriental literature. His disposition was amiable and kind, and his knowledge of many oriental languages such as few Europeans have ever possessed. The Memoirs on Babylon were the only writings which he published in his lifetime, with the exception of a few articles in the Mines de l'Orient;' but he left behind him a considerable number of papers on various subjects. His collection of oriental manuscripts, coins, and antiquities, was purchased by parliament for the British Museum. Mr. Rich, during his second residence at Baghdad and on his various excursions, was unwearied in his astronomical observations. He has left a very complete series of eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, and numerous altitudes of stars and lunar distances, most of which are computed, and the results in latitude and longitude deduced. His zeal as an observer may be estimated from the fact that when taking the sun at Baghdad the metal of his sextant was frequently too hot to be touched without pain; and after the most fatiguing marches, and while labouring under severe indisposition, he seized every favourable opportunity of fixing his position astronomically.

(Brief Notice of the Life of Mr. Rich prefixed to Mr. Rich's 'Narrative of a Residence in Koordistan.')

RICHARD I., King of England, surnamed CŒUR DE LION, was the third son of Henry II., and his queen Eleanor, and was born at Oxford, in the king's manor-house there, afterwards the monastery of the White Friars, in September 1157. The history of the earlier part of the life of Richard has been already detailed. [HENRY II.] By the treaty of Montmirail, concluded on the 6th of January 1169, between Henry and Louis VII. of France, it was stipulated that the duchy of Aquitaine should be made over to Richard, who should do homage and fealty for it to Louis, and should espouse Adelais, or Alice, that king's youngest daughter; and in 1170, Henry, being taken ill at Domfront, in Maine, made a will, by which he confirmed this arrangement. In 1173, Richard, with his younger brother, Geoffrey, and their mother, joined their eldest brother, Henry, in hie first rebellion against their father; on the submission of the rebels, in September 1174, Richard received two castles in Poitou, with half the revenue of that earldom, and, along with Geoffrey, did homage and swore fealty to their father. Nevertheless, Richard continued from this time to hold the government of the whole of Aquitaine, and to be usually styled, as before, Duke of Aquitaine, or Duke of Poitou (which were considered as the same title), although it appears that Henry now looked upon the arrangements made at the treaty of Montmirail as annulled, and that dukedom to have actually reverted to himself. In 1183 Richard refused, when commanded by his father, to do homage for Aquitaine to his elder brother Henry, on which Henry and Geoffrey invaded the duchy, and a new war ensued between them and their father assisted by Richard, which however was terminated by the death of the eldest of the three brothers in June of that same year, when Richard became his father's heir appa rent; but at an interview between King Henry and Philip Augustus of France, in November 1188, Richard, apparently impelled by a susbrother John, and also professing to resent Henry's conduct in withholding from him his affianced bride, the French king's sister, suddenly declared himself the liegeman of Philip for all his father's dominions in France; whence arose a new war, in which Philip and Richard

speedily compelled Henry to yield to all their demands, and a treaty to that effect was about to be signed when Henry died, on the 6th of July 1189. Richard was present at the burial of his father in the

choir of the convent of Fontevraud.

Notwithstanding his apprehensions, real or affected, of his brother John, Richard made no particular haste to come over to England; but, contenting himself with ordering his mother Queen Eleanor to be liberated from confinement, and to be invested with the regency of that kingdom, he first proceeded to Rouen, where he was formally acknowledged as Duke of Normandy, on the 20th of July; and it was the 13th of August before he arrived at Portsmouth (or, as others say, at Southampton). His coronation, from which the commencement of his reign is dated, took place in Westminster Abbey on the 3rd of September. It was on occasion of that ceremony that a furious riot broke out against the Jews in London, which was in the course of the next six months renewed in most of the great towns throughout the kingdom. At York, in March 1190, a body of 500 Jews, with their wives and children, having taken refuge in the castle, found no other way of saving themselves from their assailants, than by first cutting the throats of the women and children and then stabbing one another.

A short time before his father's death, Richard and his then friend Philip Augustus, had, as it was expressed, taken the cross, that is to say, had publicly vowed to proceed to the Holy Land, to assist in recovering from the infidels the city and kingdom of Jerusalem, which had recently (1187) fallen into the hands of the great Saladin. The mighty expedition, in which all the principal nations of Western Christendom now joined for the accomplishment of this object, is known by the name of the Third Crusade. Leaving the government of the kingdom during his absence in the hands of William Longchamp, | bishop of Ely and chancellor, and Hugh Pudsey, bishop of Durham and justiciary, Richard took his departure from England on the 11th of December of this same year 1189, and, proceeding to Normandy, united his forces with those of Philip Augustus in the plain of Vezelai, on the 1st of July 1190. The two friends proceeded together at the head of an army of more than 100,000 men as far as Lyon, where they separated on the 31st; Philip taking the road to Genoa, Richard that to Marseille, where he was to meet his fleet. The fleet however not arriving so soon as was expected, Richard in his impatience hired thirty small vessels for the conveyance of himself and his suite, and, sailing for Naples, arrived there on the 28th of August. On the 8th of September he proceeded by sea to Salerno, where he remained till the 23rd, and then sailed for Messina, which port his fleet had reached about a week before, with the army, which it had taken on board at Marseille. The French king had also arrived at Messina a few days before his brother of England.

The two kings remained together at Messina till the end of March, 1191. During their stay Richard compelled Tancred, who had usurped the crown of Sicily, to relinquish the dower of his sister Joan, the widow of William, the late sovereign, and to pay him besides 40,000 ounces of gold. In return he betrothed his nephew Arthur, the son of his next brother, Geoffrey, to Tancred's infant daughter, and formed a league offensive and defensive with the Sicilian king-a connection which afterwards cost him dear, for it was the source of the enmity of the Emperor Henry VI., who had married Constantia, the aunt of William, and claimed the throne of Sicily in right of his wife. After the dispute with Tancred had been settled, the latent rivalry of Richard and Philip broke out in a quarrel about the Princess Adelais, whom her brother Philip insisted that Richard should espouse, in conformity with their betrothment, now that his father no longer lived to oppose their union. But if Richard had ever cared anything for the French princess, that attachment had now been obliterated by another which he had some years ago formed for Berengaria, the beautiful daughter of Sancho VI. (styled the Wise), king of Navarre; in fact, he had by this time sent his mother Eleanor to her father's court to solicit that lady in marriage, and, his proposals having been accepted, the two were now actually on their way to join him. In these circumstances, Philip found himself obliged to recede from his demand; and the matter was arranged by an agreement that Richard should pay a sum of ten thousand marks in five yearly instalments, and restore Adelais, with the places of strength that had been given along with her as her marriage portion, when he should have returned from Palestine.

Richard, having sent his mother home to England, sailed from Messina on the 7th of April, at the head of a fleet of above two hundred ships, of which fifty-three were large vessels of the sort styled galleys; his sister the queen dowager of Sicily and the Princess Berengaria accompanying him. The king of France had set sail about a week before. Several months however elapsed before Richard reached the Holy Land, having been detained by an attack which he made upon the island of Cyprus; Isaac, the king or emperor of which had ill used the crews of some of the English ships that had been driven upon his coasts in a storm. Richard took Limasol, the capital, by assault; and that blow was soon followed by the complete submission of Isaac and the surrender of the whole island. Isaac was put into confinement, and remained a captive till his death in 1195. Meanwhile the island of Cyprus was made over by Richard in 1192 to Guy of Lusignan, upon his resignation of the now merely titular royalty of Jerusalem to

his rival Henry of Champagne; and Guy's posterity reigned in that island till the year 1458.

Having married Berengaria at Limasol, Richard set sail from Cyprus on the 4th of June (1191), with a fleet now described as consisting of thirteen large ships called busses, fifty galleys, and a hundred transports; and on the 10th he reached the camp of the Crusaders assembled before the fortress of Acre, the siege of which had already occupied them not much less than two years, and had cost the lives, it is said, of nearly two hundred thousand of the assailants. But the presence of the English king, although he was suffering from severe illness, and had to be carried to the trenches on a litter, immediately inspired so much new vigour into the operations of the Christian army, that on the 12th of July the place surrendered, and Saladin, who had been harassing the besiegers from the neighbouring mountains, withdrew in conformity with the terms of capitulation. This great event however was immediately followed by an open rupture between Richard and King Philip, whose rivalry had already exhibited itself in a variety of ways, and more particularly in the support given by Richard to the claim of Guy of Lusignan, and by Philip to that of Conrad of Montferrat, to the vacant crown of Jerusalem. Philip in fact took his departure from Palestine on the last day of July, leaving only ten thousand men under the command of the Duke of Burgundy. Richard performed prodigies of valour in the Holy Land; but, although a signal defeat of Saladin on the 7th of September was followed by the capture of Jaffa and some other places of less importance, Jerusalem, all along professedly the main object of the crusade, so far from being taken, was not even attacked. Jaffa however, after it had again fallen into the hands of Saladin, was recovered by the impetuous valour of the English king. At last, on the 9th of October 1192, Richard set sail from Acre in a single vessel, his fleet, having on board his wife, his sister, and the daughter of the captive king of Cyprus, having put to sea a few days before. The three ladies got safe to Sicily; but the first land the king made was the island of Corfu, which he took about a month to reach. He left Corfu about the middle of November in three coasting-vessels which he hired there; but after being a few days at sea he was compelled by a storm to land on the coast of Istria, at a spot between the towns of Aquileia and Venice. After narrowly escaping first from falling at Goritz into the hands of Maynard, a nephew of Conrad of Montferrat (to whose murder in Palestine Richard, upon very insufficient evidence, was suspected to be an accessory), and then at Freisach from Maynard's brother, Frederic of Betesow, he was taken on the 21st of December at Erperg, near Vienna, by Leopold, duke of Austria (a brother-in-law of Isaac of Cyprus), and was by him consigned to close confinement in the castle of Tyernsteign, under the care of his vassal, Baron Haldmar. In the course of a few days however, by an arrangement between Leopold and the Emperor Henry VI., the captive king was transferred to the custody of the latter, who shut him up in a castle in the Tyrol, where he was bound with chains and guarded by a band of men who surrounded him day and night with drawn swords. In this state he remained about three months. Meanwhile intelligence of his having fallen into the hands of the emperor had reached England, and excited the strongest sensation among all ranks of the people. A sketch of the course of events there during his absence has been given in the article JOHN. It is sufficient to mention, that a struggle for supremacy had for some time been carrying on with various success between the king's brother John and Longchamp, the chancellor, who had acquired the entire regency, and had also been appointed Papal legate for England and Scotland; and that this had issued, in October 1191, in the deposition of Longchamp by a council of the nobility held in St. Paul's Churchyard, London; after which he left the country, and although he soon ventured to return, ultimately deemed it most prudent to retire to Normandy. The supreme authority was thus left for a time in the hands of John, who, as soon as he learned the news of his brother's captivity, openly repaired to Paris, and did homage to the French king for the English dominions on the Continent.

On his return to England, John raised an army to support his pretensions, and his confederate Philip took up arms in his behalf in France, and, entering Normandy, overran a great part of that duchy, although Rouen, the capital, was preserved principally by the exer tions of the Earl of Essex, lately one of Richard's companions in the Holy Land. In England also John met with a general opposition to his usurpation of the regal authority, which soon compelled him to conclude an armistice with a council of regency that had been appointed by the prelates and barons. This was the position of affairs when Longchamp, having discovered Richard's place of confinement, after much solicitation prevailed upon the emperor to allow the royal prisoner to be brought before the diet at Hagenau, where accordingly he made his appearance on the 13th of April 1193, and defended himself with so much eloquence against the several charges made against him in regard to Tancred and the kingdom of Sicily, to his conquest of Cyprus, and to the murder of Conrad of Montferrat, that Henry found himself compelled by the general sentiment of the diet to order his chains to be immediately struck off, and to agree to enter upon negociations for his ransom. Longchamp was immediately despatched to England with a letter to the council of regency, and the result was, that, notwithstanding the insidious efforts both of John and his friend Philip of France to prevent the conclusion of the treaty,

Richard was at last liberated, on the 4th of February, 1194, after 70,000 marks had been actually paid to the emperor, and hostages given for the payment of 30,000 more. The English king had also engaged to release both Isaac of Cyprus and his daughter, and he had besides, at the persuasion, it is said, of his mother Eleanor, the more effectually to conciliate Henry, formally resigned his crown into the hand of the emperor, who immediately restored it to him to be held as a fief of the empire, and burdened with a yearly feudal payment to his superior lord of five thousand pounds. This strange transaction rests on the authority of the contemporary annalist Hoveden. Richard, descending the Rhine as far as Cologne, proceeded thence across the country to Antwerp, and, embarking there on board his own fleet, landed at Sandwich on the 13th of March. Most of John's strongholds had been wrested from his hands before his brother's return, and now the rest immediately surrendered, and he himself fled the country, and with his principal adviser, Hugh, bishop of Coventry, having been charged with high treason, and not appearing to plead after forty days, was outlawed and divested of all his possessions.

Meanwhile it was thought necessary that Richard should be crowned again, and that ceremony was accordingly performed at Winchester by Hubert, archbishop of Canterbury, on the 17th of April. Then, leaving Hubert guardian of England and grand-justiciary, on the 2nd of May following, having, with his characteristic activity, employed almost every moment since his arrival in raising an army and procuring funds for its maintenance by all sorts of exactions and the most unscrupulous use of every means in his power, he again set sail from Portsmouth, his whole soul bent on chastising the king of France. Owing to adverse winds, he was a fortnight in reaching Barfleur in Normandy, where, as soon as he landed, he was met by his brother John, who professed contrition and implored his pardon, which, on the intercession of his mother Eleanor, was granted. Richard now marched against Philip, and several engagements took place between them, in most of which the English king was successful. But the war, though it lasted for some years, was distinguished by few remarkable events. A truce for one year was agreed to on the 23rd of July; and, although hostilities were resumed some time before the expiration of that term, a peace was again concluded in the end of the following year, which lasted till the beginning of 1197.

All this time Hubert, assisted by Longchamp, who had been restored to his office of chancellor, is said to have presided over the government at home with great ability. Hubert had been educated under the famous Glanvil, and he seems, in the spirit of his master, to have exerted himself in re-establishing and maintaining the authority of the law, by which alone, even if he did no more, he must have materially contributed to the revival of industry. The large sums however which he was obliged to raise by taxation to meet the expenses of the war, in the exhausted state to which the country had been reduced, provoked much popular dissatisfaction; and the third year of the king's absence in particular was distinguished by the remarkable commotion excited by William Fitz-Osbert, styled Longbeard, a citizen of London, who is admitted to have possessed both eloquence and learning, and whose whole character and proceedings might not improbably, if he had had his own historian, have assumed a very different complexion from what has been given to him. Long beard, who acquired the names of the Advocate and King of the Poor, is affirmed to have had above 50,000 of the lower orders associated with him by oaths which bound them to follow whithersoever he led. When an attempt was made to apprehend him by two of the wealthier citizens, he drew his knife and stabbed one of them, named Geoffrey, to the heart, and then took refuge in the church of St. Mary-le-Bow in Cheapside, the tower of which he and his followers fortified, and held for three days, when they were at last (7th of April 1196) dislodged by fire being set to the building. Fitz-Osbert was first dragged at a horse's tail to the Tower, and then to the Elms in West Smithfield, where he was hanged, with nine of his followers. The people however long continued to regard him as a martyr.

The war between Richard and Philip broke out again in 1197, and in the course of this campaign Richard had the gratification of capturing the Bishop of Beauvais, a personage whom he had reason to regard as a main instigator of the severities and indignities which he had sustained at the hands of the emperor. The bishop was taken armed cap-à-pie and fighting, and when Pope Celestine recommended him to the clemency of Richard as his son, the English king sent his holiness the bishop's coat of mail, with the following verse of Scripture attached to it:-"This have we found: know now whether it be thy son's coat or no." This same year too finished the career of the Emperor Henry, who in his last moments is said to have expressed the extremest remorse for the manner in which he had treated the great champion of the Cross. Richard's other enemy, Leopold, duke of Austria, had been killed by a fall from his horse two years before.

standing the truce, if both had lived. But on the 26th of March in the following year 1199, as Richard was engaged in reducing the castle of Chaluz, the stronghold of one of his Aquitanian vassals, Vidomar, viscount of Limoges, who it seems had refused to surrender a treasure found on his estate, to which the king laid claim in right of his feudal superiority, Cœur de Lion was struck in the left shoulder by an arrow, aimed from the rampart of the castle by a youth named Bertrand de Gurdun. The wound would not have been dangerous but for the mismanagement of the surgeon in his attempts to extract the arrowhead, which had broken off in the flesh. As it was, Richard lived only till Tuesday the 6th of April. The shot was a fatal one in every way: in the fury into which the wound of the king threw the besieging army the castle was taken by storm, and all the persons found in it were immediately hanged, as some authorities say by the king's orders, with the exception only of Gurdun. He was brought into the presence of his dying victim, when Richard, under the impulse of generosity or compunction, gave him his liberty, with a hundred shillings to take him home; but after the king's death he was flayed alive, and then hanged, by order of Marchadee, the leader of the Brabantine mercenaries serving in Richard's army.

Richard I. had no issue by his wife Berengaria, but he is said to have had one or two natural children. He was succeeded on the throne by his youngest brother, John, to the exclusion of Arthur of Bretagne, the legitimate heir, as being the son of his next brother, Geoffrey. [JOHN.]

The character of Richard is one of course not to be judged without reference to the general manners of the age in which he lived. He is charged by writers of his own or near his own time with crimes of all sorts, and it is probable enough that there was hardly an excess, either of violence or licentiousness, into which his impetuous temperament did not occasionally precipitate him; but, besides the sanction or indulgence for all this accorded by public opinion and the universal example, it is also to be said for Richard that, with all his passion and recklessness-if his ungrateful rebellion against his father be left out of account-he seems to have had nothing base or malignant in his composition; and that he was as capable of acts of extraordinary generosity and disinterestedness as of excesses of brutal fury or profligacy. Of the courage and strength of will proper to his race, he had his full share, with more than his share of their strength of thew and sinew; and his intellectual powers, both natural and acquired, were also of a high order. He was renowned in his own day not only as beyond all dispute the stoutest and most gallant of living heroes, but as likewise occupying a place in the foremost rank of those who excelled in wit, in eloquence, and in song. A few of Richard's poetical compositions have been preserved, and may be found in the following works:-'La Tour Ténébresse,' 1705, which contains a love-song in Norman-French, and another chanson in mixed Romance and Provençal, said to be the joint composition of Richard and his favourite minstrel Blondel de Nesle, and to be that by which Blondel, according to the well-known story, now generally believed to be a fiction, discovered his master's prison; Walpole's 'Royal and Noble Authors,' which contains a poem of about forty lines in Provençal, from a manuscript in the Laurentine Library at Florence, another version of which in Norman-French (by some supposed to be the original), is given by Sismondi, 'Litérature du Midi de l'Europe,' vol. i., p. 149, and of which there are two English versions, one published in Burney's History of Music,' another by the late George Ellis, in Park's edition of Walpole's work; Raynouard's Choix des Poésies des Troubadours,' vol. iv., containing the Provençal version of the same poem; and the 'Parnasse Occitanien,' Toulouse, 1819, in which another poem of Richard's is given. Richard is also a distinguished character in romance; on which subject it may be sufficient to refer the reader to Ellis'e 'Specimens of Early English Romances,' vol. ii., pp. 175-290 (edit. of 1811).

The claim of Richard I. to the authorship of the ancient maritime code called the 'Laws of Oleron,' has been proved to be unfounded. Almost the only improvement in the laws or institutions of England which is attributed to him is some reform of the institution of justicesitinerant introduced by his father, but it is not very clear in what this consisted; and, whatever it was, the merit of it appears to belong not to Richard, but to his viceroy Hubert. He is also said to have abolished some of the most cruel penalties of the forest laws, although he enforced that code generally with great exactness. What is called the time of legal memory, or the term requisite to establish immemorial usage, dates from the commencement of the reign of this king. RICHARD II. (surnamed of Bordeaux), King of England, was the second but only surviving son of Edward, styled the Black Prince, eldest son of King Edward III., by his wife Joanna of Kent [EDWARD III.], and was born at Bordeaux on the 3rd of April 1366. He was consequently ten years and two months old when he lost his father, and not quite eleven years and three months when he succeeded to the throne on the death of his grandfather. His reign is reckoned to have commenced on the day following that event, the 22nd of June 1377. His coronation did not take place till the 16th of July.

BIOG, DIV. VOL. V.

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