PUNCTUATION-PUNJAB.

PUNJAB (the Pentapotamia of the Greeks, derives its name from two Persian words, signifying five rivers') is an extensive territory in the northfive great affluents-the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, west of Hindustan, watered by the Indus, and its Beas, and Sutlej, and forms a British possession the Suliman Mountains, on the N. by Cashmere, and since February 1849. It is bounded on the W. by PU'NIC WARS, the name commonly given to lower course, is called the Ghara. In shape, the on the E. and S. E. by the Sutlej, which, in its the three great wars waged for supremacy between territory of the P. resembles an isosceles triangle, Rome and Carthage. The Latin word punicus, or the apex of which is at the junction of the Indus ponicus, was the name given by the Romans to the and the Punjnud, in lat. about 29° N.; and the Carthaginians, in allusion to their Phoenician descent. base, about 450 miles in length, runs along the For an outline of the struggle between the two rival Himalayas. The sides are about 600 miles in length. powers, see CARTHAGE, ROME, HAMILCAR, HANNI- According to the latest returns published in the BAL, and the SCIPIOS.-The Romans, who believed, last statistical tables of the Colonial and other Posnot without reason, that the Carthaginians never sessions of the United Kingdom (1862), the area of the sincerely meant to keep any treaty of peace, em-P. is 100,406 square miles; and the pop. 14,794,611. ployed the phrase punica fides, Punic faith,' to denote a false and faithless spirit.

PUNKAH-PURÂN'A.

or interfluvial tracts, and frequently spoken of as in the case of a female, one under the age of 12 the plains of the Indus, has a general slope towards years. the south-west. The climate in the plains is most oppressively hot and dry in summer, indicating in Lahore 112°, in a tent artificially cooled; but cool, and sometimes frosty, in winter. Little rain falls except in the districts along the base of the Himalayas. The soil varies from stiff clay and loam to sand; but, in general, is sandy and barren, intermixed with fertile spots. The rivers afford abundant means of irrigation. The indigenous vegetation of the P. is meagre. Trees are few in number and small, and fuel is so scarce, that cow-dung is much used in its stead. With an efficient system of agriculture, however, the territories of this part of India might be rendered very productive. Of the ordinary crops, wheat of excellent quality is produced in considerable quantities, and indigo, sugar, cotton, tobacco, opium, buckwheat, rice, barley, millet, maize, and numerous vegetables and fruits are grown. The manufacturing industry of this region is very considerable, and is carried on for the most part in the great towns, as Amritsir (q. v.), Lahore (q. v.), Multan (q. v.), &c. Spices and other groceries, dye-stuffs, cloths, metals, and hardware, are imported from the more eastern provinces of British India; and grain, ghee, hides, wool, carpets, shawls, silk, cotton, indigo, tobacco, salt, and horses are exported. The inhabitants are of various races, chiefly Jats, Gujurs, Rajputs, and Patans. Two-thirds of the whole population are Moslems, and of the remaining third, one half are Hindus, and the other half Sikhs. The Jats are the most prominent of the races of the P., and are said to have formed the 'core and nucleus of the Sikh nation and military force. Of the history of the P., all that is important will be given under the heading SIKHS.

PUNKAH, a gigantic fan for ventilating apartments, used in India and tropical climates. It consists of a light frame of wood, covered with calico, from which a short curtain depends, and is suspended by ropes from the ceiling; another rope from it passes over a pulley in the wall to a servant stationed without; the servant pulls the punkah backwards and forwards, maintaining a constant current of air in the chamber.

PUNT, a heavy, oblong, flat-bottomed boat, useful where stability and not speed is needed. Punts are much used for fishing. Some are fitted for oars; but the more usual mode of propulsion is by poles operating on the bottom. Punting is a very laborious exercise.

PUOZZOLA'NO. See CEMENTS.

PU'PA (Lat. a girl, or a doll), the second stage of insect life after the hatching of the egg. The first stage after the egg is that of Larva (q. v.). In those insects of which the metamorphosis is complete (see INSECTS), the pupa is generally quite inactive, and takes no food. This is the case in the Lepidoptera, the pupa of which is called a Chrysalis or Aurelia, and in the Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, and Diptera. Manifestations of life may indeed be produced by touching, or in any way irritating, the pupa, but it is incapable of locomotion and of eating. It is quite otherwise with the pupa of other orders, which are often very voracious, and resemble the perfect insect in almost everything but that the wings are wanting. The peculiarities of the pupa are noticed in the articles on the different orders and genera of insects.

PUPIL. See EYE.

PUPIL, in the Law of Scotland, means, in the

PUPPET, a name (derived from the Lat. pupus, a child or boy, Fr. poupée, a doll) signifying a childlike image. The Italian fantoccini (from fantino, a child), and the French Marionettes (q. v.) are other which the parts of the different characters are names for puppets. Puppet-plays, or exhibitions in taken by miniature figures worked by wires, while the dialogue is given by persons behind the scenes, are of very ancient date. Figures with movable limbs have been found in the tombs of ancient Egypt and Etruria. Originally intended to gratify In China and India they are still made_to_act children, they ended in being a diversion for adults. dramas either as movable figures or as shadows behind a curtain ('Ombres Chinoises'). In Italy and France puppet-plays were at one time carried to a considerable degree of artistic perfection, and even Lessing and Goethe in Germany thought the subject worth their serious attention. In England, they are mentioned under the name of Motions by many of our early authors, and frequent allusions Jonson, and the older dramatists. occur to them in the plays of Shakspeare, Ben The earliest exhibitions of this kind consisted of representations of stories taken from the Old and New Testament, or from the lives and legends of saints. They thus seem to have been the last remnant of the Moralities his contemporaries that the most popular of these of the 15th century. We learn from Ben Jonson and exhibitions at that time were the Prodigal Son, and Nineveh with Jonas and the Whale. Even the Puritans, with all their hatred of the regular stage, In the reign of Queen Elizabeth, puppet-plays were did not object to be present at such representations. exhibited in Fleet Street and Holborn Bridgelocalities infested by them at the period of the Restoration. The most noted exhibitions of the kind were those of Robert Powel in the beginning of the 18th century. (See Chambers's Book of Days, vol. ii. 167.) So recently as the time of Goldsmith, scriptural Motions' were common, and, in She Stoops to Conquer, reference is made to the display of Solomon's Temple in one of these shows. The regular performances of the stage were also sometimes imitated; and Dr Samuel Johnson has observed, that puppets were so capable of representing even the plays of Shakspeare, that Macbeth might be represented by them as well as by living actors. These exhibitions, however, much degenerated, and latterly consisted of a wretched display of wooden figures barbarously formed, and decorated without the least degree of taste or propriety, while the dialogues were jumbles of absurdities and nonsense.

The mechanism of puppet-plays is simple. The exhibiter is concealed above or below the stage, works the figures by means of wires, and delivers the dialogues requisite to pass between the characters. The exhibition of Punch (q. v.) is perhaps the only example of this species of acting which exists in this country at the present time.

PURAN'A (literally 'old,' from the Sanscrit purâ, before, past) is the name of that class of religious works which, besides the Tantras (q. v.), is the main foundation of the actual popular creed of the Brahminical Hindus (see HINDU RELIGION under INDIA). According to the popular belief, these works were compiled by Vyasa (q. v.), the supposed arranger of the Vedas (q. v.), and the author of the Mahabharata (q. v.), and possess an antiquity far beyond the reach of historical computation. A critical investigation, however, of the contents of the

PURAN'A.

lead to the conclusion, that in their present form The modern age of this latter literature, in the they do not only not belong to a remote age, but form in which it is known to us, is borne out by can barely claim an antiquity of a thousand years. the change which the religious and philosophical The word Puran'a occurs in some passages of the ideas, taught in the epic poems and the philosophical Mahabharata, the law-books of Yajnavalkya and Sûtras, have undergone in it; by the legendary Manu (q. v.); it is even met with in some Upa- detail into which older legends and myths have nishads and the great Brahman'a portion of the expanded; by the numerous religious rites-not White-Yajur Veda; but it is easy to shew that in countenanced by the Vedic or epic works-which all these ancient works it cannot refer to the are taught, and, in some Purân'as at least, by the existing compositions called P., and therefore that historical or quasi-scientific instruction which is no inference relative to the age of the latter can imparted, in it. To divest that which, in these be drawn from that of the former, whatever that Purân'as, is ancient, in idea or fact, from that may be. Nevertheless, it must be admitted that which is of parasitical growth, is a task which there are several circumstances tending to shew Sanscrit philology has yet to fulfil; but even a that there existed a number of works called P., superficial comparison of the contents of the present which preceded the actual works of the same P. with the ancient lore of Hindu religion, name, and were the source whence these probably philosophy, and science, must convince every one derived a portion of their contents. The oldest that the picture of religion and life unfolded by known author of a Sanscrit vocabulary, Amara- them is a caricature of that afforded by the Vedic Sinha, gives as a synonym of P. the word Pancha-works, and that it was drawn by priestcraft, lakshan'a, which means that which has five interested in submitting to its sway the popular (panchan) characteristic marks' (lakshan'a); and mind, and unscrupulous in the use of the means the scholiasts of that vocabulary agree in stat- which had to serve its ends. The plea on which ing that these lakshan'as are: 1. Primary crea- the composition of the Purân'as was justified even tion, or cosmogony; 2. Secondary creation, or the by great Hindu authorities-probably because they destruction and renovation of worlds; 3. Gene- did not feel equal to the task of destroying a system alogy of gods and patriarchs; 4. Manwantaras, or already deeply rooted in the national mind, or reigns of Manus; and 5. The history of the princes because they apprehended that the nation at large of the solar and lunar races. Such, then, were the would remain without any religion at all, if, without characteristic topics of a P. at the time, if not of possessing the Vedic creed, it likewise became Amara-Sinha himself-which is probable-at least deprived of that based on the Purân'as-this plea of his oldest commentators. Yet the distin- is best illustrated by a quotation from Sayan'a, guished scholar most conversant with the existing the celebrated commentator on the three principal Purân'as, who, in his preface to the translation of Vedas. He says (Rigv., ed. Müller, vol. i. p. 33): the Vishn'u-P., gives a more or less detailed account Women and S'ûdras, though they, too, are in want of their chief contents (Professor H. H. Wilson), of knowledge, have no right to the Veda, for they observes, in regard to the quoted definition of are deprived of (the advantage of) reading it in the commentators on Amara-Sinha, that in no one consequence of their not being invested with the instance do the actual Purân'as conform to it sacred cord; but the knowledge of law (or duty) exactly; that 'to some of them it is utterly inap- and that of the supreme spirit arises to them by plicable; to others, it only partially applies.' To means of the Purân'as and other books (of this the Vishn'u-P., he adds, it belongs more than to any kind).' Yet to enlighten the Hindu nation as to other P.; but even in the case of this P. he shews whether or not these books-which sometimes are that it cannot be supposed to be included in the even called a fifth Veda-teach that religion which is term explained by the commentators. The age contained in the Vedas and Upanishads, there would of Amara-Sinha is, according to Wilson, the last be no better method than to initiate such a system half of the century preceding the Christian era; of popular education as would reopen to the native others conjecture that it dates some centuries later. mind those ancient works, now virtually closed to it. On the supposition, then, that Amara-Sinha himself implied by Pancha-lakshan'a the sense given to this term by his commentators, there would have been Puran'as about 1900 or 1600 years ago; but none of these have descended to our time in the shape it then possessed.

Various passages in the actual Purân'as furnish proof of the existence of such elder Purân'as. The strongest evidence in this respect is that afforded by a general description given by the Matsya-P. of the extent of each of the Purân'as (which are uniformly stated to be 18 in number), including itself; for, leaving aside the exceptional case in which it may be doubtful whether we possess the complete work now going by the name of a special P., Professor Wilson, in quoting the description from the Matsya-P., and in comparing with it the real extent of the great majority of Purân'as, the completeness of which, in their actual state, does not admit of a reasonable doubt, has conclusively shewn that the Matsya-P. speaks of works which are not those we now possess. We are then bound to infer that there have been Purân'as older than those preserved, and that their number has been 18, whereas, on the contrary, it will be hereafter seen that it is very doubtful whether we are entitled to assign this number to the actual P. literature.

Though the reason given by Sayan'a, as clearly results from a comparison of the Purân'as with the oldest works of Sanscrit literature, is but a poor justification of the origin of the former, and though it is likewise indubitable, that even at his time (the middle of the 15th c. A.D.), they were, as they still are, not merely an authoritative source of religion for women and S'ûdras,' but for the great majority of the males of other castes also, it nevertheless explains the great variety of matter of which the present Purân'as are composed, so great and so multifarious indeed, that, in the case of some of them, it imparts to them a kind of cyclopædical character. They became, as it seems, the source of all popular knowledge; a substitute to the masses of the nation, not only for the theological literature, but for scientific works, the study of which was gradually restricted to the leisure of the learned few. Thus, while the principal subjects taught by nearly all the P. are cosmogony, religion, including law, and the legendary matter which, to a Hindu, assumes the value of history, in some of them we meet with a description of places, which gives to them something of the character of geography; while one, the Agni-P., also pretends to teach archery, medicine, rhetoric, prosody, and grammar; though it is needless to add that that teaching has no real worth.

PURÂN'A.

One purpose, however, and that a paramount one, is not included in the argument by which Sâyan'a endeavoured to account for the composition of the Purân'as it is the purpose of establishing a sectarian creed. At the third phase of Hindu Religion (q. v.), two gods of the Hindu pantheon especially engrossed the religious faith of the masses, Vishn'u (q.v.) and Siva (q. v.), each being looked upon by his worshippers as the supreme deity, to whom the other as well as the remaining gods were subordinate. Moreover, when the power or energy of these gods had been raised to the rank of a separate deity, it was the female S'akti, or energy, of S'iva, who, as Durga, or the consort of this god, was held in peculiar awe by a numerous host of believers. Now, apart from the general reasons mentioned before, a principal object, and probably the principal one of the Purân'as, was to establish, as the case might be, the supremacy of Vishn'u or S'iva, and it may be likewise assumed of the female energy of S'iva, though the worship of the latter belongs more exclusively to the class of works known as Tantras. There are, accordingly, Vaishn'ava-Purân'as, or those composed for the glory of Vishn'u, S'aiva-P., or those which extol the worship of S'iva; and one or two Purân'as, perhaps, but merely so far as a portion of them is concerned, will be more consistently assigned to the S'akta worship, or that of Durga, than to that of Vishn'u or S'iva.

"The invariable form of the Purân'as,' says Professor Wilson, in his Preface to the Vishn'u-Purán'a, 'is that of a dialogue in which some person relates its contents in reply to the inquiries of another. This dialogue is interwoven with others, which are repeated as having been held, on other occasions, between different individuals, in consequence of similar questions having been asked. The immediate narrator is commonly, though not constantly, Lomaharshan'a, or Romaharshan'a, the disciple of Vyasa, who is supposed to communicate what was imparted to him by his preceptor, as he had heard it from some other sage. Lomaharshan'a is called Sûta, as if it was a proper name; but it is, more correctly, a title; and Lomaharshan'a was "a Sûta," that is, a bard or panegyrist, who was created, according to the Vishn'u-Puran'a, to celebrate the exploits of princes, and who, according to the Vayu and Padma Purân'as, has a right, by birth and profession, to narrate the Purân'as, in preference even to the Brahmans.'

the gods Brahmâ, Vishn'u, S'iva, and Twashtr'i; and the same scholar doubts whether this work could have any claim to the name of a P., as its first portion is merely a transcript of the words of the first chapter of Manu, and the rest is entirely a manual of religious rites and ceremonies. There are similar grounds for doubt regarding other works of the list. If the entire number of works, nominally, at least, corresponding with those of the native list, were taken as a whole, their contents might be so defined as to embrace the five topics specified by the commentators on the glossary of Amara-Sinha; philosophical speculations on the nature of matter and soul, individual as well as supreme; small codes of law; descriptions of places of pilgrimage; a vast ritual relating to the modern worship of the gods; numerous legends; and, exceptionally, as in the Agni- P., scientific tracts. If taken, however, individually, the difference between most of them, both in style and contents, is so considerable that a general definition would become inaccurate. A short description of each P. has been given by the late Professor H. H. Wilson, in his preface to his translation of the Vishnu-P.; and to it, as well as to his detailed account of some Purân'as in separate essays (collected in his works), we must therefore refer the reader who would wish to obtain a fuller knowledge of these works. The age of the P., though doubtless modern, is uncertain. The Bhagavata, on account of its being ascribed to the authorship of the grammarian Vopadeva, would appear to yield a safer computation of its age than the rest; for Vopadeva lived in the 12th c., or, as some hold, 13th c., after Christ; but this authorship, though probable, is not proved to a certainty. As to the other Puran'as, their age is supposed by Professor Wilson to fall within the 12th and 17th centuries of the Christian era, with the exception, though, of the Mârkan'd'eya-P., which, in consideration of its unsectarian character, he would place in the 9th or 10th century. But it must be borne in mind that all these dates are purely conjectural, and given as such by the scholar whose impressions they convey.

Besides these eighteen Purân'as or great Purân'as, there are minor or Upapurân'as, differing little in extent or subject from some of those to which the title of Purân'a is ascribed.' Their number is given by one Purân'a as four; another, however, names the following 18: 1. Sanatkumâra-; 2. Nârasinha-; 3. Naradiya-; 4. S'iva-; 5. Durvâsasa-; 6. Kâpila-; 7. Manava-; 8. Aus'anasa-; 9. Vârun'a-; 10. Kâlikâ-; 11. S'âmba-; 12. Nandi-; 13. Saura-; 14. Pârâs'ara-;

ably, however, a misreading for Bhargava); and 18. Vas'ishtha Upapurân'a. Another list, differing from the latter, not in the number, but in the names, of the Upapurân'as, is likewise given in Professor Wilson's Preface to the Vishn'u-Purana. Many of these Upapurân'as are apparently no longer procurable, while other works so called, but not included in either list, are sometimes met with; for instance, a Mudgala and Ganes'a Upapurân'a. The character of the Upapurân'as is, like that of the Purân'as, sectarian; the S'iva-Upapurân'a, for instance, inculcates the worship of S'iva, the KalikaUpapuran'a that of Durga or Devi.

The number of the actual Purân'as is stated to be 18, and their names, in the order given, are the following: 1. Brahma-; 2. Padma-; 3. Vishn'u-; 4. S'iva-; 5. Bhagavata; 6. Nâradiya-; 7. Mar-15. Aditya-; 16. Mûhes'wara-; 17. Bhagavata- (probkan'd'eya-; 8. Agni-; 9. Bhavishya-; 10. Brahmavaivartta; 11. Linga-; 12. Varaha-; 13. Skanda; 14. Vâmana-; 15. Kûrma-; 16. Matsya-; 17. Garud'a; and 18. Brahmân'da Purân'a. In other lists, the Agni-P. is omitted, and the Vayu-P. inserted instead of it; or the Garuda and Brahman'da are omitted, and replaced by the Vayu and Nrisinha Purún'as. Of these Purân'as, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 12, 17, and probably 1, are Purân'as of the Vaishnava sect; 4, 8, 11, 13, 15, 16, of the S'aiva sect; 7 is, in one portion of it, called Devîmâhâtmya, the text-book of the worshippers of Durga; otherwise, it has little of a sectarian spirit, and would therefore neither belong to the Vaishnava nor to the S'aiva class; 14, as Professor Wilson observes, divides its homage between S'iva and Vishn'u with tolerable impartiality; it is not connected, therefore, with any sectarial principles, and may have preceded their introduction.' The Bhavishya-P. (9), as described of them. Of the Puran'as, the original text of three by the Matsya-P., would be a book of prophecies; vata in several native editions, published at Bomhas already appeared in print: that of the Bhugabut the Bhavishya-P. known to Professor Wilson consists of five books, four of which are dedicated to bay, with the commentary of Sridharaswâmin, and

Both Purân'as and Upapurânas are for a considerable portion of their contents largely indebted to the two great epic works, the Mahabharata (q. v.) and Ramayan'a (q. v.), more especially to the former

17

PURBECK-PURCHASE-SYSTEM.

and

PURBECK MARBLE is an impure fresh-water limestone, containing immense numbers of the shells of Paludina, from which it derives its 'figure' when polished. It was formerly much used in the internal decoration of churches and other buildings in the southern counties of England. It is quarried in the peninsula of Purbeck, in Dorsetshire, and belongs to the upper section of the Purbeck Beds (q. v.).

partly in a Paris edition by Eugène Burnouf, which of the shells of a small oyster. This is preceded by remained incomplete through the premature death fresh-water strata, abounding in the remains of of that distinguished scholar; that of the Markan'- Entomostraca, and containing some beds of cherty d'eya-P., edited at Calcutta in the Bibliotheca Indica, limestone, in which little bodies, believed to have by the Rev. K. M. Banerjea; and that of the been the spore-cases of species of Chara, have been Linga-P., edited at Bombay; for, regarding a fourth, found. At the base of this sub-group, a marine shale the Garud'a-P., edited at Benares and Bombay, it occurs, containing shells and impressions apparently seems doubtful whether that little work is the same of a large Zostera. as the P. spoken of in the native list. Besides these, The Lower Purbecks begin with a series of freshsmall portions from the Padma, Skanda, Bhavish-water marls, containing Entomostraca and shells. yottara, Markan'd'eya, and other Purân'as have been These rest on strata of brackish-water origin; and published in India and Europe. Of translations, we then follows a singular old vegetable soil, containing have only to name the excellent French translation the roots and stools of Cycads, and the stems of by Burnouf of the first nine books of the Bhagavata, coniferous trees. From its black colour and the elegant translation of the whole Vishn'u-P., incoherent condition, this layer has received from together with valuable notes by the late Professor the quarrymen the name of the Dirt-bed' (q. v.). H. H. Wilson, which is now in the course of This rests on the basement bed of the whole group, republication in his works, in a new edition, ampli- which is a fresh-water limestone, charged with fied with numerous notes, by Professor F. E. Hall.- Entomostraca and shells, and contains the thin layer For general information on the character and con- in which Mr Beckles has lately found the remains of tents of the Purân'as, see especially Wilson's preface several species of mammalia. to his translation of the Vishn'u-P. (Works, vol. vi., Lond. 1864), Burnouf's preface to his edition of the Bhagavata (Paris, 1840), Wilson's Analysis of the Puran'as (Works, vol. iii. Lond. 1864, edited by Professor R. Rost), K. M. Banerjea's Introduction to the Markan'd'eya (Calcutta, 1862), and John Muir's Original Sanscrit Texts on the Origin and History of the People of India, vols. 1—4 (Lond. 1858–1863). PU'RBECK, ISLE OF, a district in the south of PURCELL, HENRY, the most eminent of English Dorsetshire, 14 miles in length from west to east, musicians, was born at Westminster in 1658, and and 7 miles in breadth, is bounded on the N. by was son of Henry Purcell, one of the gentlemen of the river Frome and Poole Harbour, on the E. and the Chapel-royal appointed at the Restoration. S. by the English Channel, and on the W. by the lost his father at the age of six, and was indebted for stream of Luckford Lake, which, rising in the park his musical training to Cook, Humphreys, and Dr of Lulworth Castle, flows north, and joins the Blow. His compositions at a very early age shewed Frome. On the west, however, the water-boundary evidence of talent. In 1676, he was chosen to sucis not complete, the district being connected with the ceed Dr Christopher Gibbons as organist of Westmain portion of the county at East Lulworth; and minster Abbey; and in 1682 he was made organist of the so-called Isle of P. is therefore really a peninsula. the Chapel-royal. He wrote numerous anthems and In ancient times, the Isle of P. was a royal deer- other compositions for the church, which were forest. See PURBECK BEDS and PURBECK MARBLE. eagerly sought after for the use of the various cathedrals, and have retained their place to the present PURBECK BEDS, a group of strata forming day. P.'s dramatic and chamber compositions are the upper members of the Oolitic Period (q. v.), even more remarkable. Among the former may be and so named because they are well developed in mentioned his music to the Tempest, his songs in the peninsula called the Isle of Purbeck (q. v.), Dryden's King Arthur, his music to Howard's and south of Poole Estuary in Dorsetshire. They Dryden's Indian Queen, to Urfey's Don Quixote, &c. are, like the Wealden beds above them, chiefly A great many of his cantatas, odes, glees, catches, fresh-water formations; but their organic remains and rounds are yet familiar to lovers of vocal music. join them more closely to the marine-formed Oolites In 1683, he composed twelve sonatas for two violins below, than to the superior Wealden series. Though and a bass. P. studied the Italian masters deeply, of a very limited geographical extent, the Purbeck and often made reference to his obligations to them. beds have yet considerable importance, from the In originality and vigour, as well as harmony and changes in animal life that took place during their variety of expression, he far surpassed both his predeposition. Generally less than 200 feet in thick-decessors and his contemporaries. His church music ness, they, however, exhibit three distinct and peculiar sets of animal remains. This has caused them to be arranged into three corresponding groups, known as the Upper, Middle, and Lower Purbecks. The Upper Purbecks are entirely fresh-water, and the strata are largely charged with the remains of shells and fish; the cases of the Entomostraca Cyprides are very abundant and characteristic. The building-stone called Purbeck Marble belongs

to this division.

The Middle Purbecks record numerous changes during their deposition. The newest of the strata consists of fresh-water limestone, with the remains of Cyprides, turtles and fish. This rests on brackish water-beds-Cyrena with layers of Corbula and Melania. Below this, there are marine strata, containing many species of sea-shells. Then follow some fresh and brackish-water limestone and shales, which again rest on the cinder-bed, a marine argillaceous deposit, containing a vast accumulation

He

has been collected and edited from the original MS. by Mr Vincent Novello, in a folio work which appeared in 1826-1836, with a portrait and essay on his life and works. He died of consumption in 1695, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.

much misunderstood arrangement in the British PURCHASE-SYSTEM, a highly unpopular and of the first appointments of officers and their subarmy, by which a large proportion-probably a half first formation of an English standing army, and was sequent promotion is effected. It dates from the formally recognised in the reign of Queen Anne. The system itself is very simple. A price is fixed by regulation for each substantive rank (see PROMOTION), viz.

Lieutenant-colonel,

Diference.

Price. £4500

£1300