one and the same virtue is at once a habit, and a virtue, and is moral.

Others better understand these four virtues as being determined to special matters, each of them to one matter, so that every virtue which produces that goodness which lies in the consideration of reason, is called prudence; and every virtue which produces that goodness which consists in what is due and right in action, is called justice; and every virtue which restrains and represses the passions, is called temperance; and every virtue which produces a firmness of soul against all manner of sufferings, is called fortitude. On this arrangement it is manifest that the aforesaid virtues are different habits, distinct according to the diversity of their objects.

QUESTION LXII. OF THE THEOLOGICAL VIRTUES

ARTICLE I. Are there any theological virtues?

R. By virtue man is perfected unto the acts whereby he is set in the way to happiness. Now there is a twofold happiness of man: one proportionate to human nature, whereunto man can arrive by the principles of his own nature. Another happiness there is exceeding the nature of man, whereunto man can arrive only by a divine virtue involving a certain participation in the Deity, according as it is said that by Christ we are made “partakers of the divine nature." And because this manner of happiness exceeds the capacities of human nature, the natural principles of human action, on which man proceeds to such well-doing as is in proportion with himself, suffice not to direct man unto the aforesaid happiness. Hence there must be superadded to man by the gift of God certain principles, whereby he may be put on the way to supernatural happiness, even as he is directed to his connatural end by natural principles, yet not without the divine aid. Such principles are called theological virtues: both because they have God for their object, inasmuch as by them we are directed aright to God; as also because it is

1 2 St. Peter, i. 4.

only by divine revelation in Holy Scripture that such virtues are taught.

ARTICLE II. Are theological virtues distinct from virtues intellectual and moral?

R. Habits are specifically distinct according to the formal difference of their objects. But the object of the theological virtues is God Himself, the last end of all things, as He transcends the knowledge of our reason: whereas the object of the intellectual and moral virtues is something that can be comprehended by human reason. Hence theological virtues are specifically distinct from virtues moral and intellectual.

§ 1. The intellectual and moral virtues perfect the intellect and appetite of man according to the capacity of human nature, but the theological virtues supernaturally.

ARTICLE III. — Are faith, hope, and charity fitly assigned as the theological virtues?

R. The theological virtues set man in the way of supernatural happiness, as he is directed to his connatural end by a natural inclination. This latter direction is worked out in two ways: first, by way of the reason or intellect, as that power holds in its knowledge the general principles of rational procedure, theoretical and practical, known by the light of nature: secondly, by the rectitude of the will naturally tending to rational good. But both these agencies fall short of the order of supernatural good. Hence for both of them some supernatural addition was necessary to man, to direct him to a supernatural end. On the side of the intellect man receives the addition of certain supernatural principles, which are perceived by divine light; and these are the objects of belief, with which faith is conversant. Secondly, there is the will, which is directed to the supernatural end, both by way of an affective movement directed thereto as to a point possible to gain, and this movement belongs to hope; and by way of a certain spiritual union, whereby the will is in a manner transformed into that end, which union and transformation is wrought by charity. For the appetite of every being has a natural motion and

tendency towards an end connatural to itself; and that movement arises from some sort of conformity of the thing to its end.

§ 2. Faith and hope denote a certain imperfection: because faith is of the things that are seen not, and hope of the things that are possessed not. Hence to have faith in and hope of the things that are amenable to human power, is a falling short of the character of virtue. But to have faith in and hope of the things that are beyond the ability of human nature, transcends all virtue proportionate to man, according to the text: "The weakness of God is stronger than men." 1

QUESTION LXIII. OF THE CAUSE OF VIRTUES

ARTICLE I. Is virtue in us by nature?

R. As regards sciences and virtues some have laid it down that they are totally from within, meaning that all virtues and sciences naturally pre-exist in the soul, and that discipline and exercise do no more than remove the obstacles to virtue and science, which arise in the soul from the lumpishness of the body, as when iron is polished by filing; and this was the opinion of the Platonists. Others, on the contrary, have said that they are totally from without. Others again have said that in aptitude the sciences and virtues are in us by nature, but not in perfection. So says the Philosopher, and this is the more correct thing to say. In evidence whereof we must consider that a thing is said to be natural to man in two ways: in one way according to the nature of the species, in another way according to the nature of the individual. And because everything has its species according to its form, and is individualized according to its matter: and man's form is his rational soul, and his matter his body; therefore that which belongs to man by virtue of his rational soul is natural to him in point of his species; while that which is natural to him by his having a given complexion of body is natural to him according to his nature as an individual. Now in both these ways a rudimentary phase of virtue is natural to man. First, as regards his specific nature, in this way, that there are by nature in the reason

of man certain naturally known principles, theoretical and practical, which are seminal principles of virtues intellectual and moral; and again inasmuch as there is in the will a natural craving after the good that is according to reason. Secondly, as regards his individual nature, inasmuch as by conformation of body some are better and some worse disposed to certain virtues: the explanation being this, that the sensitive powers are energies of corresponding parts of the body; and according to the disposition of those parts the said powers are helped or hindered in their operations; and consequently the rational powers also, which these sensitive powers serve, are helped or hindered in like manner. Thus one man has a natural aptitude for knowledge, another for fortitude, another for temperance. And in these ways the virtues, as well intellectual as moral, are in us by nature to the extent of a certain rudimentary aptitude, but not in their perfect completeness: the reason being that nature is limited to one fixed course of action, whereas the perfection of the said virtues does not lead to one fixed course of action, but is varied according to the diversity of matters wherein the virtues operate, and the diversity of circumstances. It appears then that virtues are in us by nature in aptitude, and in a rudimentary phase, but not in their perfection-except the theological virtues, which are wholly from without.

ARTICLE II.—§ 2. Virtue divinely infused, considered in its perfection, is incompatible with any mortal sin. But virtue humanly acquired is compatible with an act even of mortal sin, because the use of a habit in us is subject to our will. Nor is a habit of acquired virtue destroyed by one act of sin: for the direct contrary of a habit is not an act, but another habit. And therefore, though without grace a man cannot avoid mortal sin so as never to sin mortally, still there is nothing to hinder him from acquiring a habit of virtue, enough to keep him from evil acts for the most part, and especially from those that are very much opposed to reason. There are, however, some mortal sins that man can nowise avoid without grace, to wit, the sins that are directly contrary to the theological virtues which are in us by the gift of grace.

III. As the Rights of War is the title, by which this treatise is distinguished, the first inquiry, as it has already been observed, is, whether any war be just, and in the next place, what constitutes the justice of that war. For, in this place, right signifies nothing more than what is just, and that, more in a negative than a positive sense; so that right is that, which is not unjust. Now anything is unjust, which is repugnant to the nature of society, established among rational creatures. Thus for instance, to deprive another of what belongs to him, merely for one's own advantage, is repugnant to the law of nature, as Cicero observes in the fifth chapter of his third book of Offices; and by way of proof he says that, if the practice were general, all society and intercourse among men must be overturned. Florentinus, the lawyer, maintains that it is impious for one man to form designs against another, as nature has designed a degree of kindred amongst us. On this subject Seneca' remarks that, as all the members of the human body agree among themselves, because the preservation of each conduces to the welfare of the whole, so men should forbear from mutual injuries, as they were born for society, which cannot subsist unless all the parts of it are defended by mutual forbearance and good will. But as there is one kind of social tie founded upon an equality, for instance, among brothers, citizens, friends, allies, and another on pre-eminence

*From De Jure Belli ac Pacis, Paris, 1625. Reprinted from Hugo Grotius, The Rights of War and Peace, including the Law of Nature and of Nations, translated by Rev. A. C. Campbell, Pontefract, 1814.

1 De Ira, lib. ii. cap. xxi.