sentences must be thus linked together in a Greek version.

The following passage from Lord Macaulay's Essay on Johnson will illustrate this : -' He (the Athenian) saw the plays of Sophocles and Aristophanes; he walked amidst the friezes of Phidias and the paintings of Zeuxis; he knew by heart the dramas of Æschylus ; he heard the rhapsodist at the corner of the street reciting the shield of Achilles or the death of Argus ; he was a legislator, he was a soldier, he was a judge.' Here are seven distinct sentences without any link.

In Greek each sentence would be introduced by some particle. τὰς μὲν γὰρ τοῦ Σοφοκλέους τραγῳδίας τὰς δὲ τοῦ Αριστοφάνους κωμῳδίας ἐθεᾶτο ἄν, τοὺς δὲ περιπάτους ἂν ἐποιεῖτο παρὰ τὰ τρίγλυφα τὰ ὑπὸ τοῦ Φειδίου κεκαλλωπισμένα ἢ τὰς τοῦ Ζεύξιδος γραφάς· εἰπεῖν δ' ἂν ἀπὸ στόματος δύναιτο τὰ τοῦ Αἰσχύλου χορικά, τῶν δ ̓ ἀοιδῶν ἠκροᾶτο ἐν ταῖς τριόδοις ῥαψῳδούντων, κ. τ. λ.

Caution. Never use μév without Sé or some substitute following.

The substitutes are ἀλλά, αὖ (and its compounds) μήν, γε μήν, μέντοι, ὅμως. Sometimes πρῶτον μέν is followed by ἔπειτα or εἶτα without δέ.

If μέν appears ever to be used without δέ, e.g. ἐγὼ μὲν οὐκ οἶδα,—ἐμοὶ μὲν οὐ πιθανός, the adversative clause can be easily supplied mentally.

B. Adverbial Particles.

καί. It is often added in Greek where we do not express it (see III. 4, c). The following senses force-really, indeed,

It has an incressive

are given by its adverbial even already, as it is, even so. sense, and gives precision, ὅτου καὶ σμικρὸν ὄφελος 'any good at all. It expresses our emphasis laid on the Verb. How did he perish? πῶς καὶ διώλετο; (but kaì Tŵs did he perish?). What are we to think? τί χρὴ καὶ προσδοκᾶν; In combination with other particles καί τοι ‘and yet, καίτοι γε, καί—γε, always with a word inserted; καὶ πολλοί γε aye and even many, atque adeo ; καὶ μάλα quite so ; καὶ ταῦτα and this too ; καὶ δή supposing that; καὶ δή and καὶ δὴ καί, in a series ; ὑγίεια καὶ ἰσχὺς καὶ καλλος καὶ πλοῦτος δή. —ζώων πάντων βίους καὶ δὴ καὶ (and what's more) τοὺς ἀνθρωπίνους. Sometimes it is ironical, καὶ δὴ καὶ οἱ νέοι ταῦτα παρ ̓ ἐμοῦ μανθάνουσι ‘then I suppose, or then you mean to say that.

These various uses of this familiar word (and they are far from being exhaustive) will show how much is contained in a Greek particle. For the remaining ones,' which might be illustrated almost indefinitely, the following indications may here suffice:

áλλá. Standing alone, it often=nay or well. Its combinations with other particles, especially in Plato,

I For a full treatment of them, see Madvig, 221-281.

are very numerous, e.g. ảλλà yáp 'but really,' or 'but be that as it may. οὐ μὴν ἀλλά ‘not but what.” οὐ μέντοι ἀλλά ' yet so far from the contrary.” οὐ μέντοι ἀλλὰ θαυμάζοιμ' ἄν ‘yet I don't mean by this that I should not wonder'similarly οὐ γὰρ ἀλλά, ἀλλ ̓ ἤ

=except.

yɛ=yes, ay, at least, at all events, quite in exclamations, oxérλá ye λéyɛis 'quite abominable.' Alone or in combination it answers generally to quidem and its compounds.

μήν (besides its adversative force= μέντοι vero) strengthens asseverations, e.g. μýv in oaths, in which, or in any strong protestation, it must be inserted. Tí μýv=what else? i.e. why not? quidni? où μýv='you surely don't mean to say.' kai μnv'yet really,' or 'but yet.'

nyáp; 'is it not so? eh?' TO 'what? is it possible?' in real or affected doubt.

του introduces maxims-μή τοί γε δή, μή τί γε δή nedum, much less. Sĥra strengthens affirmative and negative answers just so, to be sure, or surely not.

=

The following are ironical—δή, φίλους δὴ ὄντας ας they said; Sĥ0ɛv as they pretended; is dń as if, so very likely! Enπov I should hope, I presume; and still stronger δήπουθεν I suppose you will grant that ; που alone I take it.

=

The inferential particles are-apa, often it='so

then after all' (see ΧΧ. 1, 7). οὖν, δή, τοίνυν, τοίγαρ, τοιγαροῦν, τοιγάρτοι.

Notice the following combinations-yoûv='any way, at any rate, for example.' 8' ovv='at all events.' ἐκ δ ̓ οὖν τῆς γῆς ἀνεχώρησαν (Thuc. ii. 5), ' However this might be about their taking an oath, the Thebans did retire without committing any wrong.' Sometimes it to resume' after a digression. μèv ovv = 'nay rather,' immo vero.

Caution. Of the particles in this section, the following cannot begin a sentence, τε, μέν, δέ, γάρ, γε, μήν, μέντοι, ἄρα, οὖν, που, δή (and its compounds), τοι, τοίνυν.

XXV. GREEK EQUIVALENTS FOR MODERN TERMS.

The difficulty of finding adequate Greek words in translating from an English author is no doubt a real difficulty; but it is less formidable than it is apt to be imagined. It diminishes with wider reading, greater observation of the genius of the language, greater familiarity with the best models, and above all by constant translation, which shows how much ancient and modern thought have in common. Greek is so plastic and flexible, its capability (through the endless combinations of its Article with adjectives, adverbs, and nouns) of framing nouns which can enter into any

1 τοίγαρ (= probably τῷ γάρ) and its compounds usually do begin a

sentence.

part of the sentence, is so unlimited ;-its wealth of verbal forms and prepositions,-its power of compounding words are each so great,-its particles are so numerous, and represent so many refinements of thought, that it would seem there were but few ideas which it would fail to express. Care, however, must be taken to steer clear on the one hand of the Scylla of too great freedom, which loses the real meaning of an author, and on the other of the Charybdis of a servile rendering of word for word or clause for clause. To the latter danger beginners are most exposed. Beware of sacrificing the sense to the form. First read the whole through carefully, and think what style, what author, and, where possible, what portion of an author it most resembles. Then con over each sentence, and reclothe it mentally in a Greek dress. Avoid as far as is practicable English-Greek Lexicons, which mislead almost as much as they aid, since they seldom give the exact sense of the word in the particular context in which it meets you. Rather verify words supplied by the memory, by the use of Liddell and Scott's Lexicon, or such books as Ast's 'Lexicon Platonicum.'

The following list of words which often present a difficulty may be useful. They are of a miscellaneous character, but principally abstract terms. It is not to be supposed that wherever they occur they must be so translated. The turn given to a sen