sometimes worn on the left side, perhaps by left-handed persons. This bag was ordinarily ornamented after the manner of the belt and garters.

Adair (1775, p. 454) tells us that "the Choktah weave shot-pouches, which have raised work inside and outside," and a Choctaw informant of the writer said that a small pouch for powder and shot was generally made of a gourd shaped like a citron upon which the skin of an otter, raccoon, or mink had been shrunk and which had afterward been hardened. Another kind was made by sewing one of these skins over a horn green, and allowing it to shrink on. The horn was taken from an adult cow or ox, not so old that the horn would be brittle or so young that it would be oversoft. It was put into water and boiled until it was soft enough to work easily. Then the inside of the horn would come out readily and they could bend the remainder, straighten it, ornament it, or spread it out by driving a stick into it, handling it like gutta percha. A large pouch corresponding to those used by the Creeks, was made of the skin of an otter, beaver, raccoon, or fox and used for grease, gun wadding, patching, and so on. The doctor carried such a pouch all of the time for his herbs and powders. The biggest pouch of all was made of the entire hide of a beaver. The mouth served as the opening and it was bent over between the rest of the pouch and the wearer's body, the tail hanging down at the side. My informant added that one could usually tell to which band of Choctaw a man belonged by his pouch (Swanton, 1931 a, pp. 42-43). A missionary report of 1852 mentions among ancient Choctaw productions "bags of the bark of trees, twisted and woven by hand" (Foreman, 1934, p. 18).

Speck has the following regarding Yuchi pouches:

Rather large pouches, läti', two of which are ordinarily owned by each man as side receptacles, are made of leather, or goods obtained from the whites, and slung over the shoulder on a broad strap of the same material. It has already been said that various articles were thus carried about on the person: tobacco and pipe, tinder and flint, medicinal roots, fetishes and undoubtedly a miscellaneous lot of other things. The shoulder strap is customarily decorated with the bull snake design by attaching beads, or if the strap be woven, by beading them in. There seems to be a variety in the bead decorations on the body of the pouch. Realistic portrayals of animals, stars, crescents and other objects have been observed, but the realistic figure of the turtle is nearly always present either alone or with the others. The turtle here is used conventionally in the same way that the bull snake is used as the decorative theme on sashes and shoulder strap, that is, in imitation of the mythical being Wind who went forth with a turtle for his side pouch. (Speck, 1909, p. 49.)

ORNAMENTATION

WORK IN SHELL

The ancient bead of the interior Indians of the South is said by Adair (1775, p. 170) to have been made out of the conch shell, and it was shaped by rubbing on a hard stone, but native beads were supplanted at an early date by those of European manufacture. The former varied in their sizes and other characteristics, but we know little more than the general fact. The wampum with which those who have read about the Indians are usually familiar was made principally from the thick clam or quahog (Venus mercenaria), and was not introduced into the Southeast-extensively at least-until after white contact.

One reason for the profuse use of beads as ornaments was the fact that they also constituted a medium of exchange and could be made useful in that capacity at a minute's notice besides furnishing visible witness to the standing and credit of the wearer. They were strung on threads by means of a little frame and thus used in the ornamentation of hair ribbons, garters, belts, purse straps, and moccasins. In spite of a statement by Adair, to be quoted presently, one gets the impression that beads were not employed as extensively by the Southeastern Indians as by those of the northeast and the Plains, but this is probably due in large measure to an excessive expansion in the use of such ornaments after the latter had begun to import these from the whites. In the Southeast, trade in beads had not attained maximum proportions before advancing civilization seriously curtailed their use and put an end to it entirely for very many purposes.

Modification of the industry had already begun before the best notices we are able to quote regarding it had been prepared. These date from approximately the same period and are supplied by the Virginia historian Beverley and by Lawson. The former treats of beads in a special chapter devoted to The Treasure or Riches of the Indians. He says:

The Indians had nothing which they reckoned Riches, before the English went among them, except Peak, Roenoke, and such like trifles made out of the Cunk shell. These past with them instead of Gold and Silver, and serv'd them both for Money, and Ornament. It was the English alone that taught them first to put a value on their Skins and Furs, and to make a Trade of them.

Peak is of two sorts, or rather of two colours, for both are made of one Shell, tho of different parts; one is a dark Purple Cylinder, and the other a white; they are both made in size, and figure alike, and commonly much resembling the English Buglas, but not so transparent nor so brittle. They are wrought as smooth as Glass, being one third of an inch long, and about a quarter, diameter, strung by a hole drill'd thro the Center. The dark colour is the dearest, and 464735-46-32

distinguish'd by the name of Wampom Peak. The English men that are call'd Indian Traders, value the Wampom Peak, at eighteen pence per Yard, and the white Peak at nine pence. The Indians also make Pipes of this, two or three inches long, and thicker than ordinary, which are much more valuable. They also make Runtees of the same Shell, and grind them as smooth as Peak. These are either large like an Oval Bead, and drill'd the length of the Oval, or else they are circular and flat, almost an inch over, and one third of an inch thick, and drill'd edgeways. Of this Shell they also make round Tablets of about four inches diameter, which they polish as smooth as the other, and sometimes they etch or grave thereon, Circles, Stars, a Half Moon, or any other figure suitable to their fancy. These they wear instead of Medals before or behind their Neck, and use the Peak, Runtees and Pipes for Coronets, Bracelets, Belts or long Strings hanging down before the Breast, or else they lace their Garments with them, and adorn their Tomahawks, and every other thing that they value.

They have also another sort which is as current among them, but of far less value; and this is made of the Cockleshell, broke into small bits with rough edges, drill'd through in the same manner as Beads, and this they call Roenoke, and use it as the Peak.

These sorts of Money have their rates set upon them as unalterable, and current as the values of our Money are. (Beverley, 1705, bk. 3, pp. 58–59.)

The account of Lawson should be compared with this:

Their money is of different sorts, but all made of shells, which are found on the coast of Carolina, which are very large and hard, so that they are very difficult to cut. Some English smiths have tried to drill this sort of shell money, and thereby thought to get an advantage; but it proved so hard, that nothing could be gained. They oftentimes make, of this shell, a sort of gorge, which they wear about their neck in a string; so it hangs on their collar, whereon sometimes is engraven a cross, or some odd figure, which comes next in their fancy. There are other sorts valued at a doe skin, yet the gorges will sometimes sell for three or four buck skins ready dressed. There be others, that eight of them go readily for a doe skin; but the general and current species of all the Indians in Carolina, and, I believe, all over the continent, as far as the bay of Mexico, is that which we call Peak and Roanoak; but Peak more especially. This is that which at New York, they call wampum, and have used it as current money amongst the inhabitants for a great many years. This is what many writers call porcelan, and is made in New York in great quantities, and with us in some measure. Five cubits of this purchase a dressed doe skin, and seven or eight purchase a dressed buck skin. An Englishman could not afford to make so much of this wampum for five or ten times the value; for it is made out of a vast great shell, of which that country affords plenty; where it is ground smaller than the small end of a tobacco pipe, or a large wheat straw. Four or five of these make an inch, and every one is to be drilled through, and made as smooth as glass, and so strung, as beads are, and a cubit of the Indian measure contains as much in length, as will reach from the elbow to the end of the little finger. They never stand to question, whether it is a tall man or a short man, that measures it; but if this wampum peak be black or purple, as some part of that shell is, then it is twice the value. This the Indians grind on stones and other things, till they make it current but the drilling is the most difficult to the Englishman, which the Indians manage with a nail stuck in a cane or reed. Thus they roll it continually on their thighs, with their right hand holding the bit of shell with their left, so in time they drill a hole quite through it, which is a very tedious work; but especially in making their roanoak, four of which will

scarce make one length of wampum. The Indians are a people that never value their time, so that they can afford to make them, and never need to fear the English will take the trade out of their hands. This is the money with which you may buy skins, furs, slaves, or any thing the Indians have; it being the mammon (as our money is to us) that entices and persuades them to do any thing, and part with every thing they possess, except their children for slaves. As for their wives, they are often sold, and their daughters violated for it. With this they buy off murders; and whatsoever a man can do that is ill, this wampum will quit him of, and make him in their opinion, good and virtuous, though never so black before. (Lawson, 1860, pp. 315-317.)

These writers agree with each other as to the relative value of white and purple wampum, and are supporetd by most other writers, but Beverley has strangely inverted the meaning of "wampum peak,” in applying it to the black variety. There is suggested difference also regarding the relative value of peak and roanoke.

Michel has a few words to say regarding shell money in use in 1701-2 at Monacantown on the James:

They do not esteem silver or gold, and do not want to take it. Their money is like the material they hang around them, but small, of white and pearly color, like small corals, strung on a string. It is sold by the yard so to speak. They measure from the index finger to the elbow, which length costs half an English crown. (Michel, 1916, p. 134.)

We know that both Dutch and English afterward imitated wampum so successfully as to flood the greater part of the Indian country from the Atlantic to the Mississippi and far beyond and ultimately to break the market and put an end to the use of beads as media of exchange.

But if we turn back to the writings of Hariot, Smith, and Strachey we find a very limited use of shell beads, which seem to have been less in favor with the coast tribes originally than beads made of copper and bone and pearls. So far as wampum itself is concerned, we know that its manufacture and use were not native to Virginia or Carolina, but that it was introduced from New York, and the district of Long Island Sound and Narragansett Bay, the name being derived from the last-mentioned region. The Indians about Long Island Sound called it sewan. At a later time the name wampum was extended over shell beads of various descriptions, even retrospectively over beads of a type wholly distinct from that of the classical wampum of the traders.

Roanoke was the name, or a name, given to a type of bead which had attained currency in the Sound section of North Carolina and about Chesapeake Bay before white contact, but in this case also it is doubtful whether the name belonged properly to one special kind of bead or was extended over several. In the descriptions given by Beverley and Lawson it will be noted that there seems to be lack of agreement since the former says that it was lightly esteemed while

Lawson, since he states that it required much more work than wampum, would indicate that it was probably valued more highly. From these accounts and various incidental notices of roanoke in the early literature, it seems evident that the term was of general application. There is, however, one marked point of distinction between wampum and roanoke; in beads of the first type the length exceeded the diameter while the opposite was true of roanoke. The beads used in the ornamentation of a purse in the Sloan collection reproduced by Bushnell (1907, pp. 38-41, pl. 6) are probably typical roanoke. From the catalog entries of this collection, it appears that the name was applied equally to the Marginella shells.

Lederer gives us some inkling of the distance to which roanoke had penetrated by 1670, and contributes something regarding the money standards of the time when he says that they purchased European objects "either with their current coyn of small shells, which they call roanoak or peack, or perhaps with pearl, vermilion, pieces of christal; and towards Ushery (the Catawba country), with some odd pieces of plate or bullon, which they sometimes receive in truck from the Oestacks" (Alvord, 1912, p. 171). This shows that by the date mentioned wampum had already been introduced from the north. Before 1750 it was well known, at least by name, throughout most of the upper Gulf region as far as the Mississippi. Adair says:

Before we supplied them [the Chickasaw, Creeks, and Cherokee are particularly meant] with our European beads, they had great quantities of wampum; (the Buccinum of the ancients) made out of conch-shell, by rubbing them on hard stones, and so they form them according to their liking. With these they bought and sold at a stated current rate, without the least variation for circumstances either of time or place; and now they will hear nothing patiently of loss or gain, or allow us to heighten the price of our goods, be our reasons ever so strong, or though the exigencies and changes of time may require it. Formerly four deer-skins was the price of a large conch-shell bead, about the length and thickness of a man's fore-finger; which they fixed to the crown of their head, as an high ornament so greatly they valued them. (Adair, 1775, p. 170.)

Adair seems to be speaking of the period immediately after white contact but before European beads had been introduced in any quantity, and it will be noticed that he applies the term wampum to conchshell beads thereby indicating that at that time neither the true wampum nor roanoke was known in the far interior.

Evidently beads made from shells had attained local use as currency before white contact in three centers: as wampumpeak, or sewan, about Manhattan Island and along Long Island Sound as far as Narragansett Bay; as roanoak in the environs of Chesapeake Bay and the sounds of North Carolina, and inland from the Gulf. In time wampum displaced the others, but native wampum was almost immediately displaced by wampum of European manufacture.