Idealistic systems of morals. Those who wish to go more fully into the modern developments of these points of view must read Sidgwick's Methods of Ethics and Green's Prolegomena. Of these two, Green's is the more difficult to understand, on account of his strongly metaphysical point of view. Muirhead's Elements of Ethics, however, will give the student great assistance in following the line of Green's argument.

Sidgwick's book has the advantage of supplying the student not only with the best statement of the modern Utilitarian point of view, but also with the best criticism of Intuitionism. For a statement of the Intuitionist point of view by one of its own adherents, reference may be made to Martineau's Types of Ethical Theory. An elementary student, however, would probably find this book somewhat confusing.

The chief books written from the Evolutionist point of view are Spencer's Data of Ethics,1 Stephen's Science of Ethics and Alexander's Moral Order and Progress.2 Each of these possesses special merits of its own. Mr. Alexander's book seems to me the most profound of the three; but for this very reason it may perhaps be the most difficult for an elementary student. Mr. Stephen's book, being by a man of letters, is written in remarkably clear and vigorous English, and will probably be found the most pleasant to read. It is also in some respects the most suggestive. Mr. Spencer's work has the advantage of forming part of a complete and comprehensive speculative system; and the way in which he connects Ethics with the various other departments of knowledge gives his book a peculiar interest and stimulating power, especially perhaps for young students. Otherwise, it does not seem to me so satisfactory as the work of either of the other two.

While, however, the more recent books will naturally have a certain attraction for the student, he ought not to neglect the older masterpieces. Plato's Republic and Aristotle's Ethics are still in many respects the greatest works on Ethics that we possess; and

1 Now Part I. of The Principles of Ethics.

2 Chapters v. and vi. in Darwin's Descent of Man may also be referred to. But the treatment of this subject there is slight and superficial.

In connection with these, Bosanquet's Companion to Plato's Republic and Muirhead's Chapters from Aristotle's Ethics may be used, See also the Commentaries by Nettleship and Stewart.

every serious student ought to read them at as early a point in his course as he finds possible. Spinoza's Ethics is a very difficult book, and can only be fully appreciated by an advanced student of Metaphysics. The same remark is on the whole true of Hegel's Philosophie des Rechts-a great book of which at last there is a tolerable translation. Some of the most important points in Hegel's system are, however, reproduced in a simple and interesting form in Dewey's Outlines of a Critical Theory of Ethics.2 Bradley's Ethical Studies also represents the Hegelian point of view; but this most interesting and stimulating work is unhappily out of print. Among other works of historical importance, which the student may profitably read, may be mentioned Butler's Sermons and Dissertation II. ("Of the Nature of Virtue "), Hume's Treatise on Human Nature, Books II. and III., or Dissertation on the Passions and Inquiry concerning the Principles of Morals, Adam Smith's Theory of Moral Sentiment, Bentham's Principles of Morals and Legislation, Bacon's De Augmentis, Books VII. and VIII., and Hobbes's Leviathan.4

1 Students who desire to read Spinoza will derive great assistance from Principal Caird's excellent monograph in Blackwood's "Philosophical Classics." Those who read German will find his whole system expounded very fully and with extraordinary clearness and brilliancy in Kuno Fischer's Geschichte der neuern Philosophie, I., ii. For a shorter account, students may be referred to the article on 'Cartesianism" in the Encyclopædia Britannica. Spinoza, as a pure Determinist, and as one who wholly excludes the conception of ideals or of final causes, may be said to begin by denying the possibility of Ethics. He treats it as a positive or natural history science, not as a normative science. Cf.. above, p.92, note 1. But as he goes on with the development of his system, he is led, in spite of himself, to admit the conception of an ideal or end in human life, and even of a certain "immanent finality" in nature. This point is well brought out by Principal Caird (op. cit., pp. 270, 304).

2 Hegel's Philosophy of History (translated in Bohn's Series) will also be found very interesting.

8 Bosanquet's Civilization of Christendom-a collection of Essays on Applied Ethics—is also written from this point of view.

4 A fairly complete list of important English works on Ethics, arranged according to schools, will be found at the end of Muir head's Elements of Ethics.

Many other useful books might be mentioned. Students who read German will find Paulsen's System der Ethik, Höffding's Ethik, Wundt's Ethik, and Simmel's Einleitung in die Moralwissenschaft, of the greatest value.2 In French, the writings of Guyau and Fouillée will be found particularly suggestive: Simon's Du Devoir and Renouvier's La Science Morale may also be referred to. For Social Ethics Comte's Politique Positive is invaluable I may also mention Sorley's Ethics of Naturalism, Fowler's Progressive Morality, Clifford's Lectures and Essays (containing some extremely suggestive points), Lotze's Practical Philosophy, Janet's Theory of Morals, Royce's Religious Aspect of Philosophy, Edgeworth's Mathematical Psychics and New and Old Methods of Ethics. In the History of Ethics, in addition to Sidgwick's History of Ethics and to the short statements contained in General Histories of Philosophy (e. g. Erdmann's, Zeller's, and Kuno Fischer's), reference may be made to Lecky's History of European Morals, to Stephen's English Thought in the Eighteenth Century, and (for readers of German) to Ziegler's Ethik der Griechen und Römern and Geschichte der Christlichen Ethik, and to Jodl's Geschichte der neuern Ethik. C. M. Williams's recent work on Evolutional Ethics will be found useful with reference to that particular school. Notices of current literature on the subject, as well as discussions on particular points, will be found from time to time in the pages of Mind, of the Philosophical Review, and of the International Journal of Ethics.

'This is particularly valuable on the side of Applied Ethics. The last-named is almost purely critical.

For a summary of Comte's point of view, see Caird's Social Philosophy and Religion of Comte. For the history of social Ethics before Comte, reference may be made to Janet's Histoire de la Science Politique; also to the same writer's Philosophie de la Revolution francaise, Saint-Simon et le Saint-Simonisme, and Les Origines du Socialisme contemporain. See also Mohl's Geschichte und Literatur der Staatswissenschaften.

• Containing extremely valuable criticisms of the Utilitarian and Evolutionist schools.