66

his Latin poems. In 1637 he set out for Italy. After three years' absence news reached him of the political troubles which were beginning in England, and, passionate lover of liberty as he was, he hastened home to take what part he, as thinker or actor, might. The first of the long series of writings by which he showed himself the earnest and accomplished champion of freedom were the "Two Books on Reformation in England," published in 1641. He passed to the side of the Independents, and wrote the 'Areopagitica," one of the most magnificent and wonderful of his prose works. In February, 1649, he was appointed Latin secretary to the council of state; and among the duties assigned to him were those of writing a refutation of the sophistical "Eikon Basilike," then attributed to Charles I., and a reply to the violent work of Salmasius in defence of the king and the monarchy. Hence the masterly "Eikonoclastes," and the noble "Defence of the People of England." On the establishment of the Protectorate Milton became secretary to Cromwell, and remained so till the death of the latter in 1658. Several years before that time he had become totally blind, deliberately and heroically preferring, as he says, the loss of his sight to the desertion of his duty. The last short intervals of sight allotted him were devoted to the composition of the "Defence." His pathetic reference to his blindness in the "Paradise Lost" is well known; less known are the passages in which he speaks of it in the "Defence," and in one of his Latin letters, (XV.) At the Restoration he retired into obscurity, old, poor, and blind; was once arrested by order of the Commons, but after a short confinement was liberated. The court went on with its gayeties and debaucheries, and the Puritan poet wrote "Paradise Lost," which was finished in 1665. For this great poem he could hardly find a publisher, and he received for it a miserable five pounds, with a conditional promise of other like sums afterward. It appeared in 1667, and, as was likely in such a time, found few readers. Milton continued to write both poems and prose works, and on the suggestion of his friend Ellwood, the Quaker, wrote "Paradise Regained," which has been unfairly depreciated. "Samson Agonistes," a grand tragic drama after Greek models, appeared about the same time. Among his other poems are the mask "Comus," one of his most exquisite creations; "L'Allegro," "Il Penseroso," "Lycidas," "Sonnets," and Latin and Italian poems. Among the prose works not already named are "Reason of Church Government," "Apology for

Smectymnus," "Treatise on Education," "Tenure of Kings and Magistrates;" and "History of England," down to the Norman Conquest only, the first history of that early period derived from the Saxon Chronicles. Milton died November 8th, 1674, and his remains were buried in St. Giles, Cripplegate, where there is a monument to his memory. Another monument was subsequently erected to him in Westminster Abbey. A more enduring one is built up in the hearts of all lovers of truth and freedom, not his own countrymen alone, but men of all lands and times. Time has reversed and almost obliterated the verdict of the enemies of Milton, and he is now for all of us a man whose language we are proud to call our own, great &mong the greatest, and good among the best. Wordsworth in his sublime sonnet, and Macaulay in his brilliant essay, have given words to the verdict of mankind. Professor David Masson has published a very elaborate "Life of Milton."

Mithridates, the Great, (B. C. 131-63,) King of Pontus. He diligently cultivated his mind by study and travel, and is said to have been master of more than twenty languages. In 88 he began his great struggle with the Romans, took almost all Asia Minor, and occupied Thrace and Athens. All hope of reconciliation was taken away by the massacre, which he ordered, of all Romans found in Asia. Eighty thousand are said to have been slain. Sulla was then sent against him. After four years of war, Mithridates was compelled to give up his conquests and his fleet, and pay a heavy contribution to the Romans. More fighting took place, and, in 74, Mithridates invaded Bithynia, and besieged Cyzicus. Lucullus soon compelled him to raise the siege, and drove him into Armenia, and, but for a mutiny of his troops, would probably have ended the war. Again the tide turned, and Mithridates recovered a large part of his dominions. In 66, Pompey was sent to carry on the war, and defeated him near the Euphrates. His spirit was still unbroken, and he formed the bold plan of invading Italy from the north; but at last his son Pharnaces was proclaimed king by the soldiers, and the great warrior, who had withstood the power of Rome for 25 years, took poison to end his life. It was ineffectual, from the frequent use he had made of poisons and antidotes, and he was put to death by a faithful Gaul in his service, B. C. 63. The death of Mithridates was looked on by the Romans as equivalent to a victory: the messengers who reported

to the general the catastrophe, appeared crowned with laurel, as if they had a victory to announce, in the Roman camp before Jericho. In him a great enemy was borne to the tomb, greater than had ever yet withstood the Romans in the indolent East. He was not a man of genius, but he possessed the very respectable gift of hating, and out of this hatred he sustained an unequal conflict against superior foes throughout half a century, without success doubtless, but still with honor. He became still more significant through the position in which history had placed him, than through his individuality. As the advanced post of the national reaction of the East against the Occidentals, he opened the new conflict of the East against the West; and the feeling remained with the vanquished as with the victors that his death was not so much the end as the beginning.

Missolonghi, a small town on the western coast of Greece, where, in 1824, at the early age of 36, the most celebrated English poet of the 19th century, (Lord Byron,) closed his brilliant and miserable career. Since the beginning of this century, the increase of wealth had inspired the Greeks with new tastes and more extended ideas. Young men of the upper classes were sent to Paris and other places for their education; in the schools at home the Greek classics were read, and inspired the youth with a love of liberty and a desire to emulate their ancestors. Their aspirations for independence were encouraged by the Philhellenism which, in many parts of Europe, had become a sort of fashion. A rising of the Greeks was first actually agitated by Alexander Ypsilanti. In the spring of 1821 insurrectionary symptoms began to show themselves, in which Mavrocordato, a Phanariot of ancient family, was the principal leader. The war continued through 1823, and it was not till the following year that the Western powers began to interfere. The first active aid for the Greeks came from England. The accession of Canning to the ministry, as foreign secretary, was favorable to their cause, and early in 1824 they obtained in London a loan of £800,000. Lord Byron, an ardent Philhellenist, not content with assisting them from his own resources with money and arms, proceeded to Greece to give them his personal aid. But a nearer acquaintance with the Greeks speedily dissipated all classical illusions. Byron died at Missolonghi, April 19th, 1824, from vexation, disappointment, and the effects of the climate. In December, 1824, Canning recognized the Greek government by sending them a

friendly note. Finally, in 1827, Greece was declared an independent kingdom under protection of England, France, and Russia.

Moawiyah, (610-680,) sixth Caliph, first of the dynasty of the Ommyades, was the son of Abu Sophian, the bitterest foe of Mohammed. After the conquest of Mecca by the Prophet, Moawiyah, with his father, embraced Islamism. He became secretary to Mohammed, and in 641 was made governor of Syria. He conquered the islands of Cyprus and Rhodes, and on the murder of the caliph Othman, 655, refused to recognize Ali, his successor; and, after a campaign of several months on the Euphrates, defeated him. His life was attempted in 660, but he escaped with a serious wound; and Ali being assassinated about the same time, Moawiyah procured the abdication of Hassan, son of Ali, and became undisputed sovereign. Civil war ceasing, the caliph extended his dominions by conquests both in the East and West. Moawiyah succeeded in making the caliphate hereditary, and his son Yezid was proclaimed his successor in 676.

Mohacz, Battle of, (1526 A. D.,) the result of which was the union of Bohemia and Hungary with Austria. Sultan Selim was succeeded, after an enterprising reign of eight years, by his son Solyman, who received from the Turks the surname of El Kanuni, or "The Lawgiver," and from the Europeans that of "The Magnificent." He took Erzerum from the Persians, and compelled them to consent to a partition of Georgia. The conquest of Rhodes, 1522, cost him 180,000 men. He was unaccustomed to relinquish an enterprise while there remained any possibility of carrying it into effect; and at length, by means of his heavy artillery, triumphed over the undaunted courage of the grand-master l'Isle Adam, and the knights of St. John. Solyman also vanquished the army of King Lewis of Hungary and Bohemia, in the battle of Mohacz; which was followed by the death of his youthful adversary, who was misled into a marshy district where he lost his life. The battle of Mohacz was one of those events which decide the fate of nations. By the death of Lewis two crowns became vacant, which were finally united on the head of Ferdinand, archduke of Austria, and husband of Anna, only sister and heir of the unlucky Lewis. (See Genealogy, VIII.)

Mohammed, (570-632.) The Arabian Prophet and the founder of Islam was born at Mecca, 570 A. D. From his youth he had shown a fondness for seclusion and serious meditation, and having attained a ripeness of character and distinctness of aim and views, he began at 40 years of age to announce himself as a prophet, and to proclaim the doctrine of Islam, (salvation,) "There is no God but God, and Mohammed is his prophet." For many years his followers were very few. The opposition of the elders and people of Mecca grew more and more bitter, and at length they resolved to put him to death. Mohammed fled from Mecca and escaped through the palm-groves to Yatreb, (July 16th, 622.) From that day the Moslems compute the succession of time. This is the epoch of the Hegira, which Omar instituted seven years after the death of the prophet, (639.) In 630, Mohammed returned to Mecca, acknowledged as prince and prophet. He now purified the Kaaba and destroyed its 360 idols, and decreed that no infidel should enter the holy city. When Mecca had become obedient, and all Arabia paid him reverence, Mohammed commanded Islamism to be carried into every country, and all nations to be united by arms or by faith. Mohammed died in 632, in the 63d year of his age.

Mohammed Khan, Dost, (?-1863,) sovereign of Afghanistan. In 1836 war was declared against him by the British government. In 1839 they succeeded in expelling Dost Mohammed, and enthroned his rival. Confined for a time in Bokhara, whither he had fled, Dost Mohammed escaped in 1840, and took part in the insurrections excited by his son, Akhbar Khan; but soon surrendered himself to the English. The insurrections continued, and the ferocious Akhbar took the leading part in them. The war came to an end in 1841; and a convention was concluded under which, in January, 1842, Cabul was evacuated. Then followed the memorable and disastrous retreat, and the massacre of the whole English army, with the camp-followers, women, and children, numbering about 26,000 persons, one survivor only reaching Jelalabad; the renewal of the war, the rescue of the English prisoners from Akhbar, the complete triumph of the English arms, and the final evacuation of Cabul, after the destruction of its fortifications, in October, 1842. In the following year Dost Mohammed recovered the throne. He remained friendly and faithful to the British

during the great mutiny of 1857, and died, three days after his capture of Herat, in May, 1863.

Molière, (1622-1673,) the great French dramatist. His real name was Jean Baptiste Poquelin, and he took the name of Molière, out of regard to his parents, when he first became an actor. After obtaining great success in the provinces, he settled at Paris in 1658, having previously produced his two great comedies, "L'Étourdi," and "Le Dépit Amoureux." In the following year he increased his reputation by the comedy “Précieuses Ridicules," which had a run of about 120 nights. He was the intimate friend of La Fontaine, Boileau, and other distinguished men; but his happiness was destroyed by an ill-assorted union (1662) with a young actress. He excited the animosity of the medical profession by several sharp attacks on them in his comedies; and that of the priests by his terrible attack on pious hypocrites in the famous "Tartuffe," which was withdrawn from the stage by the order of the king. The order was annulled in 1668. In some of his comedies he borrowed from or imitated the Latin comic writers, and in some the Italian and Spanish. But in the delineation of character and the portrayal of the vices and follies of social life, Molière is thoroughly original; and whatever materials he may have appropriated from earlier writers, he so treated them as to make the result entirely his own. He is called by Voltaire the father of French comedy, and alone among French comic writers is classical. While he treats some subjects with exquisite refinement, he indulges too frequently in exaggeration, coarseness, and mere buffoonery. His works, it is said, have been more frequently republished than those of any other French author. In 1673 he took part in the representation of his last comedy, "Le Malade Imaginaire," being at the time seriously out of health; the effort was too much for him, and he died the same night, 17th February. His profession excluded him from the French Academy, but a century after his death his bust was set up in the hall, with this inscription: "Rien ne manque à sa gloire; il manquait à la nôtre." Montaigne, Michel, (1533–1592,) the celebrated French essayist. In 1554, he was appointed a judge in the parliament of Bordeaux, and about that time he gained the esteem of the Chancellor L'Hôpital and the warm friendship of Étienne Boétie, a fellow-judge. During the civil wars which desolated his country, he lived in retirement on his own estate; profoundly

afflicted by the general suffering, and especially by the massacre of St. Bartholomew. In 1580-81 he travelled in Germany, Switzerland, and Italy. During the last few years of his life he suffered from most painful diseases, and, like his father, grandfather, and great-grandfather, he would have nothing to do with doctors or drugs. He died in the attitude of prayer, September 13th, 1592. Montaigne's "Essays" rank among the few great books of the world. Pervaded by a philosophical skepticism, which they, more than any book, contributed to popularize in France-distinguished especially for their masculine good sense, abundance of learning, knowledge of man and the world, clearness and simplicity of style, and complete sincerity, they were not long in winning the place in literature which they still hold. They have been translated into almost all languages, and have passed through more than 80 editions. The subjects of the Essays are immensely various, and everything is discussed in the freest manner. Montaigne thinks aloud in them. The book was at one time called the breviary of free-thinkers; and it is still, from some of its characteristics, chiefly read by men of the world. It is one of the only two books we know to have been in Shakspeare's library-the copy of Florio's translation, with Shakspeare's autograph, being still extant. An interesting biography of Montaigne was recently published by Bayle St. John.

Montecuculi, Raymond de, (1608-1681.) The Italian Montecuculi was the greatest military chieftain in the service of the house of Austria during the middle of the 17th century. In 1664, he commanded the forces of Christendom against the Turks, who, under the grand-vizier Achmet Kouprili, were on the point of invading Germany. Montecuculi at length arrested their progress by the memorable battle near St. Gothard, (August 1st, 1664,) a Cistercian convent on the borders of Hungary and Styria. Montecuculi having given the word, "Death or victory," the Christians, contrary to their usual practice, charged without waiting to be attacked; the Turks were routed and thrown into a disorderly flight, in which more than 10,000 of them were slain or drowned in the Raab. By this victory the danger of a Saracen invasion in Central Europe had been warded off by Montecuculi. In the spring of 1675 he defended Germany against the French under Turenne, on the Rhine, where both generals displayed all the resources of their skill. But the career of Turenne was brought to a

close before he could fight any decisive action, which enabled Montecuculi to cross the Rhine and enter Alsace. Condé was now ordered to assume the command in Alsace, who succeeded in holding Montecuculi in check till November, when the Imperialists retreated into winter quarters beyond the Rhine. This was the last campaign both of Montecuculi and Condé. Montecuculi is the author of excellent Mémoires on the art of war. Monstrelet, Enguerrand de, (1390-1453 A. D.,) a French historian. His Chronicle commences at the year 1400, where that of Froissart ends, and terminates at 1453. But different editors have successively added several continuations, which bring it down to the year 1516. His work is called Chronicles; but we must not, however, consider this title in the sense commonly attached to it, which merely conveys the idea of simple annals. The Chronicles of Monstrelet are real history, wherein, notwithstanding its imperfections and omissions, are found all the characteristics of historical writing. He traces events to their source, develops the causes, and traces them with the minutest details; and what render these Chronicles infinitely precious is his never-failing attention to report all documents as justificatory proofs of the truth of the facts he relates. An English translation was published in 1810.

Moore, Thomas, (1779-1852,) the national poet of Ireland. Like Pope, it may be said that he lisped in numbers; for in his 13th year he was a contributor to the "Anthologia," a Dublin magazine. In 1799 he proceeded to London, with the view of publishing by subscription a translation of Anacreon, which appeared in 1800. In 1803, the earl of Moira obtained for him a government appointment in Bermuda, whither he proceeded, but speedily left his duties to be performed by a deputy, and visited the United States. After his return he published, in 1806, two volumes of Odes and Epistles, which were the occasion of a bitter criticism in the "Edinburgh Review." In consequence of that article, Jeffrey and Moore met as duellists at Chalk Farm; but no harm was done, and they subsequently became fast friends. A report getting abroad that Moore and Jeffrey fought with unloaded pistols, Byron commemorated the event in his "English Bards and Scotch Reviewers;" and Moore followed up his Chalk Farm adventure by sending a challenge to Byron. The challenge led, however, as with Jeffrey, to a sincere friendship between the two rival

poets. In 1813 commenced his patriotic task of wedding new words to the most exquisite of the Irish airs, which resulted in the far-famed "Irish Melodies;" which were soon followed by his Oriental romance, "Lalla Rookh." The work was hailed with a burst of admiration. Eastern travellers and Oriental scholars have borne testimony to the singular accuracy of Moore's descriptions; and, translated into Persian, this poem has even become a favorite with the Orientals themselves. Moore also turned his attention to prose, and wrote remarkable biographies of Sheridan and Lord Byron. In 1848 he fell into a state of second childhood and the name of Thomas Moore was added to the sad list which includes the names of Swift, Scott, and Southey.

More, Sir Thomas, (1480-1535,) the earliest writer of classical English prose. At the age of 21 he entered parliament, where he opposed a subsidy demanded by Henry VII., with such energy that it was refused by the house. In 1518 he published his "Utopia," a political romance; and about this time the friendship began between him and Erasmus, which lasted through life. By the interest of Wolsey he obtained a place in the privy council. Various political missions were intrusted to him by Henry VIII. In 1520 he succeeded Wolsey as lord chancellor; and, by his indefatigable application in that office, there was in a short time not a cause left undetermined. He resigned the seals because he could not conscientiously sanction the divorce of Queen Catharine; and he was eventually committed to the Tower for refusing the oath of supremacy. After an imprisonment of 12 months he was brought to trial in the court of King's Bench, where, notwithstanding his eloquent defence, he was found guilty of treason, and sentenced to be beheaded. His behavior, in the interval, corresponded with the uniform tenor of his life; and, on July 6th, 1535, he ascended the scaffold with his characteristic pleasantry, saying to the lieutenant of the Tower, “I pray you see me safe up; and as for my coming down, let me shift for myself." In the same spirit, when he laid his head on the block, he told the executioner to wait till he had removed his beard, "For that," said he, "hath committed no treason." Thus fell this illustrious Englishman, whose integrity and disinterestedness were on a par with his learning, and whose manly piety, genial wisdom, and tender kindness in his private relations, made him beloved of all who knew him. More's fame as the earliest writer of

classical English prose rests on his "Life and Reign of King Edward V." It is characterized throughout by an easy narrative flow which rivals the sweetness of Herodotus. It is certainly the first English historic composition that can be said to aspire to be more than a mere chronicle. Moscow, Burning of, (1812.) The conviction that the Continental system (the closing of the Continental ports against British goods) would be ruinous to the commerce of Russia, and that Napoleon would never rest until he had destroyed her influence as a first-rate European power, at length roused the Russians to action. Napoleon, wishing to forestall Russia, collected, in 1812, an army of 400,000 men, from almost every country of southwestern Europe. With his accustomed rapidity of movement, he crossed the Niemen into Lithuania, and advanced by forced marches to Smolensk, where he defeated the Russians, and after two more victories he entered Moscow. At the sight of its palaces and gilded domes, the French soldiery were filled with hope and joy, imagining that they had at last reached the end of all their labors and privations. But these anticipations were soon dissipated. On entering the city, it was discovered that all that remained of its vast population were some twelve or fifteen thousand persons, either foreigners or the dregs of the people. The rest of the inhabitants had taken flight; the houses were all shut up, silence reigned in the deserted streets, striking a deeper terror into the heart than the tumult of battle. Napoleon entered the city on the 15th, and took up his residence in the Kremlin. He could not conceal the sinister presages which crowded on his mind. Never before had he fought with a people who thus defended themselves. All around was desolation, and famine stared him in the face. While he was giving vent to his lamentations, a new horror suddenly presented itself. The night was well advanced, when from the windows of the Kremlin the whole horizon seemed to glow with innumerable fires. Some had been observed the day before, which had been attributed to accident; but now there could be no doubt that the destruction of Moscow had been systematically organized. It had, indeed, been planned and executed by Count Rostoptchin, the governor of the city. Combustible materials had been placed in many houses, which were fired by a troop of paid incendiaries, under the direction of the police. The flames baffled all the exertions of the French to extinguish them. On the third day a strong northwest