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From the American standpoint, the system would appear to involve many conflicting and irreconcilable elements. Experience has indeed proved this to be the case. The friction resulting from the conflict between these opposing elements became so disturbing that a royal commission was appointed in 1886 to investigate the operations of the system, and report upon the same as a preliminary step toward remedial

measures.

The final report of the commissioners was submitted in 1888. The code issued by the department in 1890 is in certain respects the outcome of their recommendation. This code provides, as we have seen, for a diminution in the pressure of examinations, allows greater freedom to teachers in respect to the classification of their pupils, gives a fixed character to the greater portion of the grant, and marks the beginning of an important movement affecting the training and professional prospects of teachers.

Meanwhile the demand for a radical change in the system, looking to the establishment of a uniform system of board schools, has gathered such strength that a parliamentary act giving effect to this proposition. is confidently anticipated even by its opponents.

Schools for special classes.-The Government as yet has made no provision for the education of the deaf-mute or the blind, beyond authorizing the guardians of the poor in parishes and unions to pay for the education of such children in certified schools, if their parents are unable to do so; similar authority is given to the guardians in respect to feebleminded children. The blind and the deaf-mute are received in board schools, special classes being generally provided for them. Many private institutions have also been established for these classes, and a bill is now before Parliament looking to general educational provision in their behalf.

By an act of 1866, "industrial schools" were established for the detention, training, and reformation of vicious or unmanageable children. The education act of 1870 authorized school boards to send truant and refractory children to these schools under specified conditions.

School boards were also authorized to establish and maintain industrial schools for the samę purposes.

By the act of 1876, school boards were permitted to establish "day industrial schools," in which industrial training, elementary education, and one or more meals a day, but not lodging, are provided for the chil dren. According to a report published in April, 1889, fourteen such day schools had been established in England, of which all but one were under school boards.

Many boards have also established truant schools, where children may be brought under different training and discipline from those of the ordinary schools.

Auxiliary institutions.-The list of societies and associations whose work is in some way related to the elementary school work is well

nigh inexhaustible. In addition to the religious societies that maintain elementary schools, the following societies promote the interests of elementary education in various ways:

The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, founded in 1698, seeks by examinations, prizes, etc., to excite interest in scriptural study.

The Recreative Evening Schools Association, which, as its name indicates, endeavors to introduce stimulating and popular exercises, such as stereoscopic exhibitions, illustrated lectures, games, etc., into evening schools.

The Art for Schools Association, whose purpose it is to soften and ele vate the young by the influence of pictures and other objects of beauty in the school rooms.

The Society for the Promotion of Physical Education is doing great service; the Physical Elementary Schools Bill introduced into Parlia ment during the session of 1890 is largely due to its efforts.

The Band of Hope Union, which sends temperance lecturers supplied with illustrative apparatus into the schools.

The Yorkshire Ladies Council of Education works in various ways for the promotion of popular education. It has been specially active in developing instruction in cookery and domestic economy.

The London Schools' Dinners Association endeavors to provide one meal a day for the poorest class of school children. Its expenses in severe seasons run up to $500 a week.

The National Association for the Promotion of Teachers of Technical and Secondary Education exercises an important influence upon legislation affecting elementary schools.

The London Young Women's Christian Association interests itself in maintaining evening classes for girls.

The Teachers' University Association promotes relations between elementary teachers and universities.

THE SOCIETIES FORMED BY TEACHERS AND OFFICERS,

The National Union of Elementary Teachers is one of the largest societies of the kind in the world; it numbers about 16,000 members, is well officered, and thoroughly organized; it maintains an orphanage for the children of deceased members, a fund for the legal assistance of teachers who are unjustly dismissed or subjects of suits in court; a teachers' benevolent fund, and a teachers' provident society.

The Union advocates Parliamentary representation of elementary teachers and the establishment of a superannuation fund.

The organ of the Union is the Schoolmaster, an "educational newspaper, review, and school board record." The English Teacher, a monthly publication, is also issued.

The annual meetings of the Union are largely attended and ably managed. Valuable papers are presented on topics previously assigned; the discussions are full, spirited, and suggestive.

The school board clerks are also organized into an association which holds annual meetings for the discussion of school management and educational progress and demands. An immense amount of practical experience is here brought to bear upon the consideration of these subjects, and the reports of the conferences are exceedingly valuable for the light they throw upon the problems of school administration and many related problems.

The university movements for promoting popular education are not without direct effect upon the elementary schools; many of their pu pils have won distinction at the university local examinations.

Summer schools for elementary teachers have been held both at Oxford and Cambridge, and above all, the University Settlement, Toynbee Hall, East London, has sent a vivifying influence into the elementary school work of that swarming hive of humanity.

Toynbee Hall residents have carried a joyous and animating spirit into the night schools; they have relieved the tedious drudgery of the pupil teachers' cram, and developed an esprit de corps among those overworked youths by the formation of boating, cricket clubs, and the like. On the other hand, the residents have found in the machinery of the public schools a ready instrumentality for the promotion of their work of love and helpfulness among poor and outcast children.

The principal steps in the development of the system of elementary education of England and Wales, are indicated in the following table:

Date.

1808.. 1811.....

1816...

1832..

1833..

1835..

1839..

1843......

1839-1847. 1846

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.

England and Wales.

Event.

Formation of the British and Foreign School Society for the purpose of extending education among the people.

Formation of the National Society for the establishment of schools in which the principles of the church of England should be included as an integral part of the course of instruction.

Report of committee of the House of Commons on the State of education, Lord Brougham, chairman.

Passage of the reform act, which extended the franchise especially in towns, and thereby deepened the conviction of the dangers of ignorance.

First Government appropriation in aid of popular education ($100,000) restricted to building purposes.

Lord Brougham introduces the subject of national education into

the House of Lords.

Grant in aid of education increased to $150,000. Committee of council appointed "to superintend the application of any sums voted by the Parliament for the purpose of promoting public education."

Grant increased and its application extended to buildings for training colleges and for teachers' residences.

Training colleges erected.

Portion of the grant applied for the first time directly to the main-
tenance of elementary schools, viz, teachers' salaries.
Provision also made for pensions.

Denominational system virtually adopted.

1847.

Date.

1847..........

1851...

1851. 1853..

1854. 1856.

1856..

1857.

1858, Feb. 11....

1858, June 30...

1861, March 1862...

1864...... 1967.... 1870......

1873....

1874.....

1875..

1876.....

1876.....

1876... 1879.

1880...

1882....

Chronological Table-England and Wales-Continued.

Event.

The Committee of Council introduce " 'management clauses" for
insertion in the trust deeds of Church of England schools-object
to secure for lay subscribers a due share in the management of
the schools.
Roman Catholic Church admitted for the first time into coöperation
with the committee of council. Catholic Poor School Committee
established to represent the Roman Catholics of Great Britain.
Minute limiting the annual amount of the grant for pensions to
£6 500 ($32,500).

Wesleyan Training College, Westminster, opened.

Capitation grant first allowed, i. e., grant to school fund based upon average attendance.

Hammersmith Roman Catholic Training College.

Liverpool Training College.

Office of vice president of committee of the privy council on education created Thus was created an office filled by a minister responsible to the House of Commons for the expenditure of the graut.

Conference in London to consider the imperfect attendance of children at school, presided over by the Prince Consort exercises a great influence.

Sir John Parkington, M. P, moved the appointment of a commission to inquire into the state of popular education.

Commission appointed, known as the Duke of Newcastle's commission.

Report of commission submitted.

Revised code adopted, generally known as Mr. Lowe's code; intro-
duced the principle of payment upon results. Pensions discon-
tinued.

Conscience clause protecting the religious convictions of parents
proposed to the national society by the committee of council.
Passage of Lord Derby's reform act extending the franchise gives a
new impulse to the movement for popular education.
Passage of the education act-generally known as Mr. Foster's bill,
he being at that time vice president of the council.
The annual code becomes an addition to the education law.
Amending act amongst other provisions made obligatory the at-
tendance at school of children whose parents were in receipt of
outdoor relief and required the board guardians to pay their fees.
Effort to make metric system a part of the arithmetic course aban-
doned (ride code).

Class, i. e., optional, subjects introduced (vide code).

Extra grants allowed for rural schools in thinly populated districts. Lord Sandon's act makes it obligatory upon parents to cause their children to receive "efficient elementary instruction in reading, writing, and arithmetic," upon fear of penalty. Limits of compulsory age, five to fourteen years. As a means of enforcing the obligation of school attendance, the act places restrictions on the employment of children and provides for securing the school attendance of neglected or vagrant children and for the establishment of day industrial schools."

Code specifies the conditions of good organization and discipline which state-aided schools must fulfill.

Revival of provision for pensions.

Provision prohibiting grant to unnecessary schools repealed in respect to districts not under a school board.

Mr. Mundella's act establishing direct compulsion by the school authority in contradistinction to the optional compulsion of Mr. Forster's act and the indirect compulsion of Lord Sandon's act. Code makes average attendance the basis for assessing the grant; the rate of payment per unit of average attendance determined by the percentage which the actual number of passes is of the whole number which could possibly be obtained by all scholars liable to examination.

Chronological Table-England aad Wales-Continued.

Date.

1882.

1884.

1884.

1886-1888.. 1890....

Event.

Seventh standard added. Merit grant introduced, i. e., grant based upon inspector's report as to general conduct and tone of the school.

Teachers made responsible for the classification of pupils.

Appointment of a Royal commission to investigate the operations of the elementary education acts.

Report of the Royal commission in successive volumes.

New code modifying the system of elementary education in important particulars.

Establishment of day training colleges attached to university colleges.

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