fidelity; and the consequences of this revolt involved the ruin of their magnificent town. The huge walls yet stand in ruins, and the situation of the place still renders it important.

Odoacer, first barbarian King of Italy, was the son of one of Attila's officers. He entered into the imperial guards, in which he rose to an honorable rank. In 476 he was chosen chief of a confederate army, and was saluted by them king of Italy. He defeated the patrician Orestes at Pavia, banished his son Romulus Augustulus, the last Roman emperor, and made Ravenna the seat of his kingdom. He obtained the title of patrician from Zeno, emperor of the East, and did not assume the imperial ensigns. By his wise and honorable administration he showed himself worthy of the dignity to which he was raised; but misery, desolation, and gradual depopulation were the prominent features of the condition of the kingdom. In 489, Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, invaded Italy, and Odoacer was three times defeated by him: first near Aquileia, then near Verona, and lastly near Ravenna. He was then besieged three years in Ravenna, and at length, compelled by famine and the clamors of the people, he made a treaty with Theodoric, by which they were to rule jointly. But after a few days, Odoacer was assassinated by his conqueror, March, 493. Olynthian War. See Appendix, page 225.

Origen, (185-253,) a Father of the Church, and one of the most learned writers of his times. At the age of 17 he lost his father, who was beheaded for his profession of Christianity. Origen had then recourse to the teaching of grammar for the support of the bereaved family; but this occupation he relinquished on being appointed catechist, or head of the Christian school of Alexandria. From Alexandria he went to Rome, where he began his famous "Hexapla," an edition of the Hebrew Bible with five Greek versions of it. At the command of his bishop, Demetrius, he returned to Alexandria, and on his way through Palestine, in 228, was ordained presbyter at Cæsarea. Soon after this he began his "Commentaries," in which he indulged too much the fancy for allegory; and in his other works he advanced notions more agreeable to the Platonic philosophy than to the Scriptures. To his contemporaries the most offensive of his doctrines were those of the pre-existence of souls, and the finite duration of future punishment.

Orleans Family, The, in France. Louis Philippe, son of Egalité, duke of Orleans, (see Genealogy VII.,) was elected king of the French by the Chamber of Deputies, on the 7th of August, 1830, his predecessor, Charles X., having alienated his people by limiting the freedom of the press, and consequently being dethroned after a three days' revolution, (July 27-29th, 1830.) The new king applied himself to acquire popularity among the Parisians, by displaying himself as a "citizen king." Anybody and everybody was admitted to his presence. He appeared in the streets on foot, in a great-coat and round hat, with the proverbial umbrella under his arm, and shook hands familiarly with the people. The reign of Louis Philippe. was without any fixed principles, and a continued system of trimming, both in his foreign and domestic policy. Louis Philippe's domestic policy was necessarily in some degree reactionary, because the principles on which he had accepted the throne were untenable. In his foreign policy, he endeavored to acquire a little popularity without risking a breach with the Great Powers. Seeking to centralize the royal power, and to strengthen himself by foreign alliances, he was compelled to flee to England in 1848. Ottoman Empire in Europe. Humble indeed is the description the Ottomans give of their own origin. They relate that Othman, the founder of their empire and name, himself followed the plough with his servants, and that when he wished to break off from work at noon, he used to stick up a banner to call them home. These servants were his first followers in war, and they were marshalled beneath the same signal. The new power that arose in Asia Minor having now established itself on its northern coasts, it chanced one day that Soliman, the grandson of Othman, rode along the shores of the Hellespont, passing on through the ruins of ancient cities, and fell into a silent revery. "What is my khan thinking of?" said one of his escort. "I am thinking," was the reply, "about our crossing over to Europe." These followers of Soliman were the first who did cross over to Europe: they were successful; and Soliman's brother, Amurath I., was he who conquered Adrianople. Thenceforth the Ottoman power spread gradually farther. Bajazet I., the great-grandson of Othman, was master here of Weddin and Wallachia, yonder of Caramania and Cæsarea. Europe and Asia, both threatened by Bajazet, rose up to resist him. Europe, however, fell prostrate at Nicopolis; and though Asia, for which Timur stood

forth as champion, was victorious, still it did not destroy the dominions of Bajazet. It was but fifty years after this defeat that Mohammed II. took Constantinople, (1453 A. D.,) the imperial city whose sway had once extended far over both quarters. The victor was not content with seeing the cities on the coasts of the Black Sea and the Adriatic own his supremacy: to bring the sea itself under subjection, he built a fleet; he began to conquer the islands of the Ægean one after the other; and his troops showed themselves in Apulia. There seemed to be no bounds to the career of victory. Though Bajazet II. did not equal his predecessors in valor, still his cavalry swept Friuli, his infantry captured fortresses in the Morea, and his fleets rode victorious in the Ionian Sea. But he was far outstripped by his son Selim and his grandson Soliman. Selim overcame the Mamelukes of Cairo, who had often been victorious over Bajazet; and he caused the prayer to be pronounced in his noble name in the mosques of Syria and Egypt. Soliman effected far more than he. One battle made him master of Hungary, (see MOHACZ,) and thenceforth he trod in that kingdom as in his own house. In the far East he portioned out the territory of Bagdad into sandshakates according to the banners of his troops. That Chaireddin Barbarossa, who boasted that his turban stuck on a pole scared the Christians and sent them flying for miles into the country, served him, and made his name dreaded over the whole Mediterranean. With amazement and awe men reckoned up thirty kingdoms and nearly 8,000 miles of coast that owned his sway. He styled himself emperor of emperors, prince of princes, distributer of the crowns of the world, God's shadow over both quarters of the globe, ruler of the Black and of the White Sea, of Asia and of Europe. Otto I., or the Great, (923–973 A. D.,) Emperor of the West, and conqueror of the Magyars on the Lechfeld. When the male line of the Eastern branch of the Carolingians had ended in Lewis, (see Genealogy, X.,) the chieftains chose Conrad the Franconian, and after him Henry the Saxon, (the Fowler,) both representing the female line of Charlemagne. Henry laid the foundations of a firm monarchy, driving back the Magyars and Wends, and founding the towns to be strongholds against their irruptions. He bequeathed an undisputed sceptre to his house, which was so firmly established that his son Otto was in position to revive and carry through the claims founded by his Carolingian predecessors. He first completely realized

the idea of a Germanic empire, which they had only conceived and prepared. He governed Lotharingia and administered Burgundy: a short campaign sufficed to re-establish the rights of his Carolingian predecessors to the supreme power in Lombardy. Like Charlemagne, he was called to aid by a Pope oppressed by the factions of Rome; like him, he received in return for his succor the crown of the Western empire, (February 2d, 962.) But it was not his only office. He was already a German king; and the new dignity by no means superseded the old. This union in one person of two characters is the key to the whole subsequent history of Germany and the empire. It was of great importance to the inward progress of Germany that it thus remained in unbroken connection with Italy, the depository of all that remained of ancient civilization, the source whence all the forms of Christianity had been derived. Germany felt this importance, and had for many years longed for this union. In a time of disintegration, confusion, strife, all the longings of every wiser and better soul for unity, for peace and law, for some bond to bring Christian men and Christian states together against the common enemy of the faith, were but so many cries for the restoration of the Roman empire. These were the feelings that 30 years before (933 A. D.) had broken forth on the field of Merseburg, in the shout of "Henry the Emperor," these the hopes of the Teutonic host, when, after the great deliverance of the Lechfeld, they had greeted Otto, conqueror of the Magyars, as Imperator, Augustus, Pater Patriæ," (955 A. D.)

Ovid, Publius Ovidius Naso, (B. C. 43 - A. D. 18,) a celebrated Roman poet of the Augustan age. He studied the law; but his predilection for literature led him to neglect severer studies, and on succeeding to the paternal estate, he quitted the bar for poetry and pleasure. Horace and Propertius were his friends, and Augustus was a liberal patron to him; but he at length fell under the displeasure of the emperor, who, for some cause never explained, banished him from Rome, and sent him to live among the Getæ, or Goths, on the Euxine. It is probable that the political intrigues of Tiberius contributed to the exile of the poet; while the licentiousness of his writings, and the irregularities of his life, afforded plausible pretexts for the infliction of this punishment. His chief works are the "Fasti," and "Metamorphoses." There are many English translations

of Ovid; the most recent of which are the metrical versions of the "Metamorphoses" and the "Fasti," by J. B. Rose.

Oxenstiern, Axel, (1582–1654,) Count, an eminent Swedish statesman, distinguished for profound sagacity, patriotism, and political honesty. He was the favorite of Gustavus Adolphus, after whose death he conducted

Pacification of Ghent. See GHENT.

Parma, Alessandro Farnese, Duke of Parma, (1555-1592,) one of the greatest generals of his age. He served in the Spanish armies, and distinguished himself at the battle of Lepanto. In 1577 he conducted the Spanish forces to Flanders, and contributed to re-establish the power of Spain. He soon after became governor of the Netherlands, recovered many of the principal towns, and won over the Catholic population. In 1590 he invaded France, and, without risking a battle, compelled Henry IV. to raise the siege of Paris. After his return from France, the state of his health became so alarming, that he asked for his dismissal, but he died without obtaining it, December, 1592. It was to his military genius and his conciliating policy that Spain owed the preservation of the Southern Netherlands.

Passau, Peace of, (1552 A. n.,) between emperor Charles V., and Maurice, elector of Saxony, allowing the free exercise of the Protestant religion. The chief articles were, in substance, that the confederates should dismiss their troops by the 12th of August, or enroll them in Ferdinand's service for the war against the Turks; that the landgrave of Hesse should be set at liberty on his promising submission for the future; that a diet should be held within six months for settling the religious disputes, and also for considering the alleged encroachments on the liberties and constitution of the empire; that in the mean time the Protestants should enjoy the free exercise of their religion, engaging in turn to leave the Catholics unmolested; that Protestants as well as Catholics should be admitted into the imperial chamber; that an entire amnesty should be granted for all

the affairs of the kingdom, during the minority of the queen, Christina, with equal ability and integrity. He controlled completely the education of the young queen, and, though he procured for her the best instruction in art, science, and literature, the course pursued was calculated to extinguish all feminine qualities.

past transactions; and that Albert of Brandenburg should be admitted into the treaty, provided he immediately laid down his arms. The king of France was invited to state his grievances against the emperor, so that he might be included in the general pacification. And as it was foreseen that the proposed diet might fail in bringing about the desired settlement, it was agreed in a separate treaty that in that case the peace should remain in full force till a final accommodation could be effected. This latter agreement Charles refused to sign; but it was not anticipated that he would endeavor to disturb it. Thus was terminated the first religious war in Germany, arising out of the league of Smalcald; by which, whatever we may think of the duplicity of Maurice, he was certainly the means of saving the liberties of the empire, as well as the Protestant religion, from the assaults of Charles V. (See Appendix, page 200.)

Pastoureaux, The, (1250 A. D,) a French word meaning "young shepherds," the first democratic demonstration in France. Louis IX., king of France, endeared himself to his subjects by the simplicity of his manners and the sanctity of his life. When, in 1248, he led a French army against the sultan of Egypt, he was taken prisoner, and only released after a long negotiation, (1253.) He nevertheless remained a year in the Holy Land, to aid in its defence, in case the sultan should push his victory beyond Egypt; and he did not quit Palestine until the barons of the Holy Land had themselves assured him that his presence was no longer essential. Besides, he had just heard news which made it his duty to hasten his return to France. The insurrection of the pastoureaux had broken out. They consisted of the most miserable rustics, and mostly of shepherds, who, hearing of the cap

tivity of their king, flew to arms, banded together, formed a large army, and announced their intention of going to deliver him. This may have been a mere pretext, or it may have been that the opinion which these poor people had already formed of Louis had inspired them with a vast, vague hope of comfort and deliverance. What is certain is, that these shepherds showed themselves everywhere hostile to the priests, and massacred them, administering the sacraments to themselves. They acknowledged for their leader an unknown man, whom they called grand-master of Hungary. They traversed Paris, Orleans, and a considerable part of France with impunity, but were ultimately dispersed and destroyed. Pausanias, commander of the allied Greeks at the battle of Platææ, B. C. 479. In the following year he commanded the expedition of the allied Greeks against Asia, liberated the Greek cities in Cyprus, and besieged and took Byzantium. His ambition and insolence became offensive to his countrymen, and discontent drove him into treason. He entered into a secret treaty with the king of Persia; but this being discovered by the Ephors, he was recalled and superseded. He continued his treasonable intrigues, and these being detected by the revelation of a slave, his arrest was determined upon; but, to avoid the punishment due to his treason, he fled into a temple at Sparta, and the Lacedæmonians blocked up the door with stones, the first of which was placed by Pausanias's mother. He was there starved to death, about B. C. 467.

Peel, Sir Robert, (1788-1850,) Prime Minister of England, and the most distinguished statesman of his age. His father, in 1809, had him brought into parliament as member for Cashel, and the House of Commons became thenceforward the arena of his life. He had not sat long in it before he proved himself an able speaker and a laborious and sagacious worker. He was, after 1834, often at the head of the administration, and from 1842 his power was as real as his position was dignified. In the autumn of 1845, the famine, which then threatened to sweep over the country, roused a universal agitation, free from all party strife; and meetings were held in all the large towns, praying for the immediate opening of the ports, to relieve the people from their sufferings. Shortly after the opening of the session of 1846, he formally announced, to the surprise of all, the hope of thousands, and the rage and dismay of his party, his intention, not of modi

fying, but of entirely repealing the corn laws. Instantly he became the object of the most unsparing invective, unceasing attack, and bitter reproach, from those who accused him of having deceived them. All this he bore with firmness and equanimity. The corn laws were abolished in June, 1846, and free trade proclaimed as the commercial policy of the country. Simultaneously with the passing of this measure, Sir Robert Peel resigned office. His country owes to him as deep a debt of gratitude as to any statesman that has ever presided over her destinies. The reformer of the criminal code, the introducer of an effective system of police, the founder of a system of currency which has been lauded by the most eminent financiers, the restorer of civil equality to Christians of all denominations, and his last and greatest achievement - the introduction into British policy of the principles of free trade-might well be entitled to the highest honors that could be rendered to his memory. (See "Political Biography," by T. Doubleday, and "Life," by Guizot.) Peloponnesian War. See Appendix, page 175.

Pericles, the great Athenian statesman. In his youth he applied himself to the study of philosophy, under the guidance of Anaxagoras, who had a most powerful influence on him, and remained one of his most intimate friends. To his other acquirements he added that of extraordinary eloquence; and thus prepared, he began to take part in public affairs about B. C. 469. The popular party soon recognized him as their chief, and he got various measures passed for their gratification. In B. C. 444 he became sole ruler of Athens; and the aim of his policy was to extend and strengthen her empire, and to make the people worthy of their position. Under hist administration the navy was increased, commerce extended, general prosperity advanced, and Athens adorned with noble buildings. Phidias was the friend of Pericles, and under his direction the Parthenon, the Propylæa, the Odeon, and other temples and monuments, the admiration of all time, were erected. Pericles directed Athens during the first two years of the Peloponnesian war, in the second year of which the plague broke out in Athens, and the popular discontent vented itself in the prosecution of the great ruler. He was fined, but soon regained his influence. The plague carried off many of his friends and relatives, and, last of all, his favorite son. This loss broke his heart, and, after a lingering illness, he died, B. C. 429.

Perseus, the last King of Macedonia. The great event of his reign was the war with the Romans, which, long expected, began in 171. In 168 the war was ended by the total defeat of Perseus at Pydna, by L. Æmilius Paulus. Perseus escaped with his children and treasures to Samothrace, but soon gave himself up, and, after being led in triumph at Rome, was cast into prison. He was, however, allowed to spend his last years at Alba. (See Appendix, pages 188, 189.)

Persius, (34-62 A. D.) Aulus Persius Flaccus is the third in order of the four great Roman satirists, (Lucilius, Horace, Persius, Juvenal.) His extant works consist of six short satires, than which few productions have ever enjoyed more widely diffused and more enduring popularity. A long unbroken chain of testimonies might be linked together, reaching from the period of their publication through the darkest portion of the middle ages down to the revival of literature. The satires have been often translated into English, of which the translation of Barton Holiday is the most quaint, that of Gifford the most accurate, and that of Dryden the most spirited and poetical.

Peter Damiani. See DAMIANI.

Peter the Cruel (1334-1368) was son of Alfonso XI., and succeeded his father in 1350, under the regency of his mother and Albuquerque, his tutor. He earned the title of the Cruel by a long series of atrocious cruelties, beginning with the assassination of Eleonora de Guzman, his father's favorite mistress. He married Blanche of Bourbon, abandoned her in three days, and afterward had her secretly murdered. Wives, mistresses, brothers, cousins swell the list of his victims, besides a great number of nobles killed by his orders. At last, in 1366, a revolt broke out, headed by Henry of Trastamara, his natural brother, and supported by French troops under Bertrand du Guesclin. Pedro was defeated and expelled; but by the aid of the Black Prince, who won the victory of Najaro and took Bertrand prisoner in 1367, he was re-established on the throne. On the withdrawal of the Black Prince, who was ungraciously treated, Pedro indulged his revenge, and a fresh revolt took place. Pedro was defeated by Henry at Montiel, and was killed by him in the tent of Du Guesclin, March, 1368. He was succeeded by his murderer, who became the founder of the house of Tras

tamara. (Genealogy, XV. See Dillon: HISTORY OF THE REIGN OF PETER THE CRUEL.)

Peter the Great, (1672-1725,) the founder of the greatness of Russia. He obtained the sole authority in 1689, on the retirement of his brother Ivan, with whom he had been associated in the government of the empire. After having suppressed a conspiracy of the Strelitzes against his life, he travelled in foreign countries, not in the character of czar, but as member of an embassy. At Amsterdam he worked, incognito, in a ship-yard; and went to the village of Zaandam, where he caused himself to be enrolled among the workmen, under the name of Peter Michaeloff Here he lived in a little hut for seven weeks, made his own bed, and prepared his own food, corresponded with his ministers at home, and labored at the same time in shipbuilding. After having visited England, he returned to Russia in 1698, and earnestly endeavored to improve and soften the rude and barbarous manners of his subjects. In 1700 he entered upon a war with Sweden, which lasted till 1721. (See Appendix.) Peter gained by the Swedish war the navigation of the Baltic: this was the prize he chiefly wished to obtain; for maritime commerce was the principal object of his solicitude, as the only means of giving animation to his extensive dominions. The communication between the provinces of his dominions was facilitated by 11 great rivers, which he endeavored to unite, and thus to establish a communication by water between the Caspian, Baltic, and White seas. Peter suppressed the patriarchate, and made himself head of the church as well as of the state. In 1703 he founded St. Petersburg, and began the fortifications of Cronstadt. He extended the limits of the empire, both in Europe and Asia; changed the face of Russia by his zealous promotion of trade, navigation, manufactures, and education; effected an immense change in the manners and customs of the Russians; and, after the conclusion of peace with Sweden, received the title of emperor of all the Russias and father of his country. Reforming others, he failed to reform himself, but remained to the last an ignorant, coarse, brutal savage, indulging in the lowest vices, and gloating over scenes of cruel suffering. A short Life of Peter the Great has been edited by Wight.

Peter the Hermit, the preacher of the first Crusade, was a French soldier

of Amiens, who, quitting the military profession, made a pilgrimage to the