to the Greeks. In the midst of these preparations, the king was assassinated by a young man in revenge for an injury inflicted on him, (336.)

ALEXANDER THE GREAT.

I. Alexander's Great War against Persia. ALEXANDER THE GREAT ascended the throne of Macedonia in 336. He was only 20 years old when, by the destruction of Thebes, which had rebelled, he deprived the Greeks of the hope of re-establishing their independence, (335.) He then marched from Pella and overran Asia as far as the Ganges, (334-826.)

Chronological Table of Alexander's Campaigns in Western Asia.

334. Alexander crosses the Hellespont and conquers the Persians at the GRANICUS. 333. He subdues the western and southern provinces of Asia Minor, and conquers for the second time the Persians at ISSUS.

332. He conquers Syria, Phoenicia, and Cyprus, takes Tyre, and makes himself master of Egypt, where he founds ALEXANDRIA.

331. He returns to Asia, crosses the Euphrates, and defeats the Persians for the third time at ARBELA. Murder of Darius Codomannus, last king of the Persians, by one of his own officers, (Bessus.) Asia was indifferent concerning the name of her master, and, after the third battle and the death of the king, Persia fell prostrate before the conqueror.

II. Indian Campaign.

The north-eastern limits of the Persian Empire having been reached, Alexander conceived the design of making himself king of all Asia, the extreme boundaries of which were, as he supposed, at no great distance. With this view he undertook an expedition against the Indians: crossing the Indian frontier in the spring of 327, he fought his way to the Hyphasis, one of the rivers of the Punjab. The increasing discontent of his soldiers forced him here to change from an eastern to a southern advance. Sailing down the Hydaspes and Indus, he arrived at the Indian ocean. From here the fleet, under Nearchus, sailed through the Persian gulf to the mouth of the Euphrates and Tigris, while Alexander himself accompanied the bulk of the army through the Iranian deserts to Babylon, which he made the capital of his empire.

THE EMPIRE OF ALEXANDER reached now from the Adriatic sea to the Indus, and from the steppes of central Asia to the Indian ocean.

III. Character of Alexander's Administration.

He protected the conquered from oppression, showed proper respect to their religion, and left the civil government in the hands of the native rulers who had hitherto possessed it.

The fundamental principle was to alter as little as possible in the internal organization of the countries.

In the midst of his labors he perished, (323,) either by poison or by intem

perance, having scarcely completed his 32d year. His children being yet infants, his chief generals provided each for himself, and only thought of conciliating the greedy soldiery. His family fell a sacrifice to the ambition of his generals, who for themselves obtained no other boon than a life of perpetual alarms and a violent death

IV. Immediate Results of Alexander's Death. For a few brief years a Greek ruler had held in his hand the whole intellectual vigor of the Hellenic race, combined with the whole material resources of the East. After his death, the work to which his life had been devoted - the establishment of Hellenism in the East was by no means destroyed; but his empire had barely been united when it was again dismembered, and amidst the constant quarrels of the different states that were formed out of its ruins, the diffusion of Greek culture in the East was prosecuted on a reduced scale.

V. The States sprung from Alexander's Empire.

In the course of time Alexander's empire was changed into a system of Helleno-Asiatic states.

Under the protection of the Sarissæ, Greek civilization peacefully domiciled itself everywhere throughout the ancient Persia. The officers who had divided the heritage of their great commander, gradually settled their differences, and a system of states was established, consisting of:

A. 8 EMPIRES. 1. Macedonia. 2. Asia. 3. Egypt.

B. 8 STATES OF THE SECOND RANK, the principal among which were: 1. Atropatene. 2. Galatia. 8. Pergamus. C. 3 CONFEDERACIES. Cities,

1. The Etolians. 2. The Achæans. 8. The Mercantile

A. THE THREE EMPIRES.

1. Macedonia.

MACEDONIA, (capital, Pella,) was a military state, compact in form and with its finances in good order. Greece was in general dependent on it, and its towns received Macedonian garrisons; especially the three important fortresses of Demetrias in Magnesia, Chalcis in Euboea, and Corinth on the isthmus, "the three fetters of the Hellenes." But the strength of the state lay, above all, in its original domain, the province of Macedonia. Here still existed a goodly proportion of the old national vigor which once had produced the warriors of Marathon.

2. Asia, or the Empire of the Seleucidæ.

ASIA, (capital, Seleucia,) was nothing but Persia superficially remodelled and Hellenized; a rather loose aggregate of states in various degrees of dependence, of insubordinate satrapies, and of half-free Greek cities.

3. Egypt, or the Empire of the Ptolemies. EGYPT, (capital, Alexandria,) formed a consolidated and united state, in which the intelligent state-craft of the first Ptolemies, skilfully availing itself of ancient national and religious precedent, had established an absolute government.

The rural population in Egypt was wholly passive; the capital was everything, and that capital was a dependency of the court. It was one of the peculiar advantages of Egypt, that its policy did not grasp at shadows, but pursued definite and attainable objects.

The Ptolemies never tried to found an universal empire, and never dreamt of conquering India; but by way of compensation, they drew the whole traffic between India and the Mediterranean from the Phoenician ports to ALEXANDRIA, and made Egypt the first commercial and maritime state of the world, and the mistress of the eastern Mediterranean and of its coasts and islands.

B. THE THREE PRINCIPAL STATES OF THE SECOND RANK. 1. Atropatene.

A series of small independent states, stretching from the southern end of the Caspian sea to the Hellespont, filled the whole of northern Asia Minor.

All these states were fragments of the great Persian Empire, and were ruled by Oriental, mostly old Persian, dynasties. The most characteristic among these was the remote mountain land of Atropatene, (to the southwest of the Caspian sea,) the true asylum of ancient Persian manners, over which even the expedition of Alexander had swept without leaving a trace.

2. Galatia.

In the interior of Asia Minor was the Celtic state of Galatia. There, three Celtic tribes had settled, without abandoning either their native language and manners, or their constitution and their trade as freebooters. These rude but vigorous barbarians were the terror of the effeminate surrounding nations, and even of the rulers of Asia themselves, who agreed at last to pay them tribute.

3. Pergamus.

In consequence of bold and successful measures of opposition to these Gallic hordes, Attalus, a wealthy citizen of Pergamus, received the royal title from his native city, and bequeathed it to his posterity. This new court was, in miniature, what that of Alexandria was on a grand scale. A well-filled treasury contributed greatly to the importance of these rulers of Pergamus. Attalus, the founder of the dynasty, was the Lorenzo de' Medici of antiquity, and remained throughout life a wealthy citizen. The family life of the Attalid house contrasted favorably with the disorders and scandals of nobler dynasties.

C. THE THREE CONFEDERACIES.

1. The Etolian Confederacy.

The energy of the northern Greek character was still unbroken in Ætolia, although it had degenerated into a reckless impatience of discipline and control. They might have been of great service to the Greek nation, had they been able to give up their thorough hostility to Macedonia and to the Achæan confederacy.

2. The Achæan Confederacy.

In the Peloponnesus, the Achæan league had united the best elements of Greece proper in a confederacy based on civilization, national spirit, and peaceful preparation for self-defence. But the unfortunate variances with Sparta and the lamentable invocation of Macedonian interference in the Peloponnesus made it so completely dependent on Macedonia, that the chief fortresses of the country soon received Macedonian garrisons, and the confederacy annually took the oath of fidelity to the Macedonian king..

3. The Mercantile Cities.

The most independent position among the intermediate states was held by the "league of the Greek cities." They were spread from the Propontis to Rhodes, mostly on the eastern side of the Archipelago Three of them, in particular, had after Alexander's death regained their full freedom, and by the activity of their maritime commerce had attained to respectable political power, and even to considerable territorial possessions; namely, BYZANTIUM, CYZICUS, and RHODES. a. BYZANTIUM, the mistress of the Bosphorus, rendered wealthy and powerful by the transit dues which she levied, and by the important corn-trade carried on with the Black sea.

b. CYZICUS, on the Asiatic side of the Propontis, was the great outlet for the products of the interior of the Asiatic peninsula.

C. THE RHODIANS had, by their favorable position for commerce and navigation, secured the carrying trade of all the Eastern Mediterranean; and their wellhandled fleet enabled them to become the champions of a neutral commercial policy. The Rhodians emphatically supported the Greek maritime cities in their struggles with their sovereigns, and so became the acknowledged head of the league of the mercantile towns in the Eastern Archipelago.

A. DEVELOPMENT OF THE ROMAN CONSTITUTION.
I. Regal Rome.

a. Character of the history of Regal Rome.

What is called the history of the kings and early consuls of Rome is to a great extent fabulous. It is certain that more than 360 years after the foundation of Rome,

the public records were destroyed by the Gauls, and that the oldest annals of the commonwealth were compiled more than a century and a half after the destruction of the records, (that is, more than 5 centuries after the foundation of Rome in 750.) b. The regal office.

The community of the Roman people arose out of the junction of ancient clan

ships. Whoever belonged to one of these clans was a citizen of Rome. These citizens appointed from their own rank a leader, (rex,) who was the master in the household of the Roman community. This regal office was constituted by election; but the citizens did not owe fidelity and obedience to the king until he had convoked the assembly of freemen capable of bearing arms and formally challenged their allegiance. Then he acquired in its entireness that power over the community which a father had over his children; and, like him, he ruled for life. As the house-master was not simply the greatest, but the only power in the house, so the king was not merely the first, but the only holder of power in the

state. Death alone terminated his power. If he had not himself nominated a successor, the citizens assembled, unsummoned, and designated a temporary king. (interrex,) who could only remain in office five days. This interrex could not himself nominate the new king; but he nominated a second interrex for other five days, who then designated the new king.

Thus "the august blessing of the gods, with which renowned Rome was founded," was transmitted from its first regal recipient in regular succession to his six followers in office.

d. The reformed Constitution of Servius Tullius. Origin of the Plebeians. At all times there existed side by side with the citizens in the Roman community, their bondmen, who were called, either,

1. Listeners, (clients,) from their being dependants on the several households. 2. Or, the multitude, (plebs,) as they were termed negatively with reference to their want of political rights.

The elements of this intermediate stage between the freeman and the slave were in existence in the Roman household from the earliest times. The Roman citizens were the protectors; the plebeians were the protected. The number of these protected was continually augmented by two causes:

1. By the Latins, who, by the provisions of the Latin league, had the right of settling at Rome.

2. By the conquest of the neighboring towns, the greater part of whose population was transferred to Rome.

The burdens of the war fell exclusively on the old citizens, while the plebs shared in the results of victory without having to pay for it with their blood. The result of this was that the number of the plebeians was constantly on the increase, and liable to no special diminution, while that of the citizens (who were exposed to all the dangers of war) was, at the utmost perhaps, not decreasing.

Thus there grew up by the side of the citizens a second community in Rome: THE PLEBEIANS.

Plebeians admitted to military service. The first step toward the amalgamation of these two parts of the Roman people was made by the constitution which bears the name of Servius Tullius. By this Servian constitution, the duty of military service, instead of being imposed on the citizens as such, was laid upon the possessors of land, whether they were citizens or plebeians. Service in the army was changed from a personal burden into a burden on property. The arrangement was as follows:

Formation of the Army. Infantry. Every freeholder, from his 17th to his 60th year, was under obligation of military service. They were divided, according to the size of their farms, into five summonings, (classes.) The owners of a normal farm formed the first class. A normal farm contained as much land as could be properly tilled with one plough. The proprietors of such a farm were obliged to appear at the gathering of the militia in complete armor. The four following ranks, of smaller landholders, (the possessors of 3, 4, 4, or of a normal farm,) were required to fulfil service, but not to equip themselves in complete armor. Almost the half of the properties were normal farms.

The proprietors of either 3, 2, or of a farm amounted to scarcely one-eighth

of the freeholders. Those, however, who owned of a farm amounted to fully one-eighth of the whole number. The sixth rank contained those who owned no property whatever, the proletarii. They had to supply workmen and musicians for the army as well as a number of substitutes, who marched with the army unarmed, and when vacancies occurred took their places in the ranks, equipped with the armor of the sick or of the fallen.

Cavalry. They chose for the cavalry the most opulent and considerable proprietors among the citizens and the plebeians. A certain amount of landed property seems to have been regarded as involving an obligation to serve in the cavalry. This consisted of 1,800 horse, or 18 centuriæ, (100 men forming a centuria.)

e. Division of the Roman people according to the constitution of Servius Tullius. A. Cavalry, divided into 18 centuriæ.

The Roman constitution placed in the hands of the king a formidable power, which was felt perhaps by the enemies of the land, but was not less heavily felt by its citizens. Abuse and oppression could not fail to ensue from it, and, as a necessary consequence, efforts were made to accomplish its limitation. The earliest achievement of this, the most ancient opposition in Rome, consisted in the abolition of the life tenure of the presidency of the community; in other words, in the abolition of the monarchy.

b. The two Consuls.

In the room of one president holding office for life, two annual rulers now were placed at the head of the Roman community. The one life-king was replaced by two year-kings, who called themselves generals, (prætores,) or judges, (judices,) or merely colleagues, (consules.) The supreme power was not intrusted to the two magistrates conjointly, but each consul possessed and exercised it for himself, as fully as it had been possessed and exercised by the king. The royal office was not broken up into parts, neither transferred from an individual to a committee, but simply doubled, and by that course, if necessary, neutralized through its own

action. The two first consuls were Lucius Junius Brutus and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus. The year was henceforth (until 541 A. D.) named after them.

c. The Dictator.

This doubling of the plenary power of the magistrate in reality applied only to the ordinary presidency of the community. In extraordinary cases the consuls were superseded by a "master of the people," (magister populi,) or commander, (dictator.) In the election of a dictator the community bore no part at all, his nomination proceeded solely from one of the consuls. There lay no appeal from his sentences unless he chose to allow it. As soon as he was nominated, all the other magistrates became legally powerless and entirely subject to his authority. To him as to the king was assigned a "master of the horse," (magister equitum.) The intention was that the dictator's authority should be distinguished from that of the king only by its limitation in point of time, the maximum duration of his office being six months. The first dictator, Titus Larcius, was appointed in 501 B. C., when Rome was threatened with a Latin war.

d. The assembly of the militia, comitia centuriata.

By this revolution, all the political prerogatives were transferred to the assembly of the militia, (the comitia centuriata,) so that the plebeians now received the rights as they had previously borne the burdens of citizens. The small beginnings of the constitution of Servius Tullius attained such a development that the comitia centuriata came to be regarded as the assembly of the sovereign people. With it rested: I. The decision on appeals in criminal causes.

II. The nomination of magistrates.

III. The adoption or rejection of laws.

e. Patricians and Plebeians.

The object of the division of the Roman people into 193 centuriæ, or companies, had been the amalgamation of the patricians and plebeians: this object had been obtained; but one of the consequences of this amalgamation was that the patricians (old citizens) converted themselves into a gentile nobility, which bore from the first the stamp of an exclusive and wrongly privileged aristocracy.

The plebeians (new citizens) remained excluded from all public magistracies and public priesthoods, and could not legally intermarry with the patricians, although they were admitted to the position of officers and senators. After the expulsion of the kings, the vacancies in the senate were so extensively filled up with plebeians, that out of 300 senators more than half (164) were plebeians. Henceforth the internal history of Rome is nothing but the struggle of the plebeians to gain perfect equality in every respect with the patricians.

III. The Social Revolution of 495 and 494 B. C.
a. The secession to the Sacred Mount.

Cause. The aristocracy, which ruled Rome since 510, had struck a threefold blow at the smaller landholders:

I. They were deprived of the use of the common pasture.
II. The taxes were increased.

III. The distributions of land were entirely stopped.

To all this was added the farming on a large scale by means of slaves. This crushed the small farmers entirely. They sank more and more in debt, and became from actual freeholders mere nominal proprietors with actual possession. In this position the small farmer knew nothing of property but its burdens: this threatened to demoralize and politically to annihilate the whole farmer class. Immediate Cause. When in 495 the levy was called forth for a dangerous war, the men bound to serve refused to obey the command unless the farmers imprisoned for debt were liberated. This was conceded. The farmers took their places in the ranks, and helped to secure the victory.

The peace which had been achieved by their exertions brought back their prison and their chains. They endured what could not be changed. But when in the following year the war was renewed, the consul's word availed no longer. It was not till Manius Valerius was nominated dictator, that the farmers, from their confidence in him, were induced to march against the enemy. The victory was again with the Romans; but when, after the campaign, the dictator would carry out his promises, (to alleviate the debtor's burdens,) he was prevented by the senate. The army still stood in its array before the gates of the city. When the conduct of the senate became known, it abandoned its general and its encampment, and marched into the district of Crustumeria, between the Tiber and the Anio.

The Secession. The plebeians occupied a hill, and threatened to establish in this, the most fertile part of the Roman territory, a new plebeian city. The senate gave way; the dictator negotiated an agreement; the citizens returned within the city walls, unity was outwardly restored, and the mount beyond the Anio was henceforth called the Sacred Mount.

Results. The consequences of this secession were felt for many centuries: it was the origin of the tribunate of the plebs. By the side of the two patrician consuls were placed two plebeian tribunes.

b. The Tribunes of the Multitude, (Tribuni Plebis.)

They originated from the military tribunes, (commanders of a division,) and derived from them their name; but constitutionally they had no further relation to them.

In respect to power the tribunes of the multitude stood upon a level with the consuls, but the consuls were necessarily patricians, and the tribunes necessarily plebeians.

The consuls had the ampler, the tribunes the more unlimited power, for the consul submitted to the prohibition and the judgment of the tribune, but the tribune did not submit himself to the consul. The power of the consuls was essentially positive, that of the tribunes essentially negative. Thus, in this remarkable institution, absolute prohibition was in the most stern and abrupt fashion opposed to absolute command.

The number of the tribunes was originally 2, then 5, and afterward 10.

c. The struggle between Patricians and Plebeians.

The institution of the tribunes was in reality the organization of the civil war. Parties. A. The original settlers, old citizens, the patricians, the rich; whose object was the annihilation of the tribunate.

B. The later settlers, new citizens, the plebeians, the poor; whose avowed object was the restriction of the consular and extension of the tribunician power.

Among many attempts to annihilate the tribunate, that of 491 was especially remarkable. Gaius Marcius was a brave aristocrat, who derived his surname of Coriolanus from the storming of Corioli. Having been impeached by the tribunes for proposing, during a season of scarcity, that corn should be distributed among the people on condition of their renouncing the tribunate, he fled from the city. He returned, however, at the head of a Volscian army. When he was on the point of conquering the city of his ancestors for the public foe, the earnest appeal of his mother touched his conscience. He expiated his first treason by a second, and both by death.

d. The first Agrarian Law of Spurius Cassius, in 486.

Spurius Cassius, a noble-minded patrician, tried to make an end to the civil dissensions by striking at the root of the evil. He attempted to break down the financial omnipotence of the rich. He proposed to have the public domain measured, and to leave part of it for the benefit of the public treasury, while the rest was to be distributed among the poor.

The nobles rose as one man; the rich plebeians took part with them; even the commons; the poor, were dissatisfied because he wanted to give to the Latin confederates their share in the distribution of the land. Cassius had to die. There was some truth in the charge that he had usurped regal power, for he had endeavored to exercise the chief kingly duty, to protect the poor against the rich. The law of Cassius was buried along with him, but its spectre thenceforward incessantly haunted the eyes of the rich, and again and again it rose from the tomb against them, till the conflicts to which it led destroyed the commonwealth. IV. The Legal Revolution.

a. The Law of the XII. Tables.

The want of any written code of laws for the plebeians induced the tribune Caius Terentilius Arsa to propose a commission to prepare a code of public laws. Ten years elapsed ere this proposal was carried into effect. At length, in the year 453, the preparation of a legal code was resolved upon, and an embassy was despatched to Greece to bring home the laws of Solon. On its return, (451,) there were elected from the nobility ten men (decemvirs) for drawing up a code of law. These decemvirs, after having been bound not to infringe the sworn liberties of the commons, were clothed for one year with irresponsible authority. They made a series of legal provisions, divided into 10 sections, which, after they had received the assent of the nation, were engraved on 10 tables of brass, and affixed in the forum to the rostra in front of the senate-house. But as a